Does Stockton treat his characters in a dramatic way?

Stockton does present the characters in "The Lady or the Tiger" in a dramatic way. They are extravagant and even a bit hyperbolic. That is to say, Stockton exaggerates some of the character traits to make his points clear. Of the king, he writes,

"He was a man of exuberant fancy, and, withal, of an authority so irresistible that, at his will, he turned his varied fancies into facts. He was greatly given to self-communing, and, when he and himself agreed upon anything, the thing was done."

Also note that Stockton mocks the king's character in this way. The king is "semi-barbaric." This is like saying someone is semi-murderous. It suggests that, if he is occasionally barbaric, then he simply is barbaric. This is one of Stockton's subtle strategies which adds to dramatizing the king's personality. 

The princess is equally extravagant in description.

"This semi-barbaric king had a daughter as blooming as his most florid fancies, and with a soul as fervent and imperious as his own."

She is strikingly beautiful and as barbaric as her father. Her suitor is the ideal underdog/hero.

"Among his courtiers was a young man of that fineness of blood and lowness of station common to the conventional heroes of romance who love royal maidens."

The princess's love for him is also described in hyperbolic terms: 

 . . . he was handsome and brave to a degree unsurpassed in all this kingdom, and she loved him with an ardor that had enough of barbarism in it to make it exceedingly warm and strong. 

Stockton paints these characters in dramatic and well-defined strokes. Thus, it would seem that the characters' actions will be quite predictable. Everything seems dramatically clear. But in the end, Stockton does not say what the princess chooses. He leaves that to the reader. Using a mock fairy tale style, Stockton gives the reader quite overt character types but leaves the ending unknown. This is the dramatic effect in the end. We are given clear characters but an unclear ending. 

The lowest pressure achieved in a laboratory is about 1.0 X 10^-15 mm Hg. How many molecules of gas are present in a 1.00-L sample at that...

In this question, we have to use the ideal gas law, which can be written as:

PV = nRT

where P is the pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of moles, R is the universal gas constant and T is the temperature (in K).

In this question, P = 1 x 10^-15 mm Hg

1 atm of pressure is equal to 760 mm Hg. Thus the given pressure can also be converted to the units of atm.

Thus, P = 1 x 10^-15 mm Hg x 1 atm / 760 mm = 1.3158 x 10^-18 atm

V = 1 l

T = 22 degrees C = 22 + 273 K = 295 K

and R: universal gas constant = 0.0821 l atm/mol/K

Substituting all the values in the equation, we get:

1.3158 x 10^-18 atm x 1 l = n x 0.0821 l atm/mol/K x 295 K

or, n = 5.378 x 10^-20 moles

Since each mole of a substance contains 6.023 x 10^23 molecules, the number of molecules in the current case are:

Number of molecules = 5.378 x 10^-20 x 6.023 x 10^23

= 3.24 x 10^4 molecules or 32,392 molecules.

Hope this helps.

How do the allusions in Act III, Scene 2 of Romeo and Juliet evoke tension?

Two types of tension are evoked in Act III, Scene 2 of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. In the beginning soliloquy Juliet is anxiously awaiting night to come so she can be reunited with Romeo for their honeymoon. The initial tension in her words is happy and even sexual in nature, but also has a dark undertone as evidenced by the her first allusion. In the opening lines she alludes to the Greek myth of Phoebus and Phaethon:

Gallop apace, you fiery-footed steeds,
Towards Phoebus’ lodging. Such a wagoner
As Phaëton would whip you to the west
And bring in cloudy night immediately.

Phoebus, or the sun god Apollo, has a chariot and team of horses which daily drags the sun across the sky to bring on night. The chariot is driven by Phoebus's reckless son Phaethon who has trouble holding the horses. Phaeton is close to scorching the earth with the sun when he is stopped by Zeus. The audience might interpret this reference as indicating Juliet is also anxious about her hasty and maybe even ill-advised marriage to Romeo.

The second allusion evokes the growing tension between Juliet and the Nurse. This tension first surfaces in Act II, Scene 5 when the Nurse is slow to give Juliet the news of Romeo's plans. In this scene Juliet alludes to the devil and to hell in regarding the Nurse:

What devil art thou that dost torment me thus?
This torture should be roared in dismal hell.

The Nurse has come in weeping and distraught but doesn't initially tell Juliet what has happened. Juliet is afraid that Romeo has been killed. Eventually the Nurse reveals that Tybalt is dead and Romeo banished. Later in Act III, the tension between the Nurse and Juliet boils over as the Nurse advises Juliet to forget Romeo and marry Count Paris. Juliet vows to never consult the Nurse again in the final words of Act III.

What is the setting of A River Runs Through It?

A River Runs Through It is the title of both the novel and a short story by Norman MacLean.  It is based on his life in and around Missoula, Montana.  This area of Montana is where the story takes place. 

The setting is very important to the story, as much of it takes place outside in nature because of Norman and his family's love of fly fishing.  In describing his family, MacLean explained that they "lived at the junction of great trout rivers in western Montana."  This was one of the first things MacLean mentioned when describing his family background, which emphasized the importance of setting in the story.  He went on to describe how important fly fishing was to his family.  A favorite spot for fly fishing of MacLean and his brother was the Big Blackfoot River in Montana.

What is a metaphor from the poem "Paul Revere's Ride" by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow?

A metaphor is a type of figurative language that compares one thing to another without using the words "like" or "as." Usually, one thing is simply stated to be the other thing. Two notable metaphors in "Paul Revere's Ride" are explained below.

In the sixth stanza, the cemetery is compared to a military encampment with these words: "Beneath, in the churchyard, lay the dead, / In their night-encampment on the hill." Since this is a poem about the British military and a conflict that is about to occur, this metaphor is particularly apt. It makes one think about all the rows of graves as if they were the rows of tents in which soldiers would sleep. Like sleeping soldiers, the dead people in the graves were silent and still. Longfellow extends the metaphor by describing the wind as a "sentinel" that walks about among the tents, or graves.

In stanza 8 the flying hooves of Revere's horse are likened to a spark that ignites a raging fire: "And the spark struck out by that steed, in his flight, / Kindled the land into flame with its heat." Just as a single spark can cause a devastating forest fire, so the message that Paul Revere spread, and the battle that happened in response, began the Revolutionary War, an event that roused and involved the entire land occupied by the thirteen British colonies. 

Each of these metaphors helps create the solemn and portentous mood that Longfellow imparts in this poem. 

In "Amos Fortune, Free Man" by Elizabeth Yates, what does Amos do for Lois?

We must first consider what Amos almost—but ultimately does not—do for Lois.

Amos takes pity on Lois' sad situation in life and has an affinity for her children. Though Amos has been saving money for years, he decides that he wants to use that money to buy a small home in the village for Lois and her children to give them a new chance at life.

Amos' wife Violet contends that Amos should instead help Lois' older children find employment, so they may pull themselves out of their dire circumstances. Amos and Violet firmly disagree with one another for some time. Violet is so firm in her belief that she hides the money from Amos.

Ultimately, Violet provides Amos with the money for him to use to build the home, but after much thought and prayer, Amos agrees with his wife and instead helps provide work for Lois' older children.

What is an example of a man vs. man conflict in Fahrenheit 451?

Montag vs. Captain Beatty is an example of a man vs. man conflict.

The man versus man conflict, or character versus character, is a conflict between two people.  In literature, this means that two characters are struggling, or one character is struggling with another.  Montag’s main enemy or conflict is his boss at the firehouse, Captain Beatty.

Captain Beatty is an unusual man.  He is supposed to be against books, and yet he can quote widely from literature and history.  He also seems to enjoy baiting Montag and watching him struggle in his own crisis of faith with books.  Beatty knows exactly what is going on with Montag, and seems to relish in torturing him.

When Montag steals the book and finds himself unable to face Captain Beatty and the others, he calls in sick.  Beatty knows immediately what has happened, and comes to let Montag know he knows.  He doesn’t tell Montag he knows he stole a book. He gives him a lecture on the history of firemen.

"Every fireman, sooner or later, hits this. They only need understanding, to know how the wheels run. Need to know the history of our profession. They don't feed it to rookies like they used to. Damn shame." Puff. "Only fire chiefs remember it now." Puff. "I'll let you in on it." (Part I)

Later, when Montag returns to work, Faber has a radio in his ear so that he can guide him through his interactions with Captain Beatty.  Beatty is a worthy adversary.  Montag is no match for him in cunning.  He realizes something else and finds the radio.  He notices Montag listening and hits it out of his ear. Beatty switched the green bullet off and thrust it in his pocket.

"Well--so there's more here than I thought. I saw you tilt your head, listening. First I thought you had a Seashell. But when you turned clever later, I wondered. We'll trace this and drop it on your friend." (Part III) 

Montag does not want to let Beatty get Faber.  He hardly realizes it himself when he switches on the flamethrower and turns it on Beatty. In his last moments, Beatty is shocked.  He did not know Montag had it in him.  In this way, Montag settles his conflict with Beatty- permanently.  He has to go on the run after that.

The conflict between Beatty and Montag represents the conflict in society.  When people can't have books or the firemen come and burn the house down, you have an oppressive society.  Beatty represents that oppression for Montag, and he fights it and eventually wins.

In Lord of the Flies Ralph says, "If we have a signal going, they'll come and take us off. And another thing. We ought to have more rules. Where...

The literary device Golding uses in this quote is symbolism, and at least three levels of symbolism are at work here. First, Golding has his characters choose a symbol for themselves as part of the action of the story. The boys have chosen the conch as a symbol of their form of government, which happens to be a type of democracy. They voted to elect Ralph as their chief, and they agreed to rules for their assemblies, including that whoever has the conch must be allowed to speak uninterrupted. This quote extends the authority of the conch, and therefore their democracy, to everywhere on the island. While the characters overtly use the conch as a symbol, Golding develops the symbol further in the narrative, using it to stand for the order of a civilized society. It comes to represent Ralph, Piggy, and the faction on the island that wants to remain civilized, as opposed to Jack's band that descends into savagery. Another symbol evident in the quote is the signal fire, which represents hope of rescue and a connection with the outside world. Ralph is "nuts on the signal," according to Jack, but as Ralph begins to despair and lose focus, Piggy often has to remind him of the importance of the fire. 

The quote could be analyzed in several ways. One would be to examine how it relates to the action of the story. Coming early in the novel, the quote establishes the importance of the conch and the fire, two elements that drive the narrative. This scene foreshadows the scene on Castle Rock when Piggy carries the conch when he and Ralph go to confront Jack about Piggy's glasses; at that later meeting, both the conch and Ralph's desire for "more rules" are shattered. 

The quote could be analyzed in terms of characterization, using it to show Ralph's blossoming skills as a leader and his relationship with Jack, since Jack immediately agrees with this declaration by Ralph.

One could also analyze the quote in relation to many of the themes of the novel, such as civilization versus savagery as discussed above. Another theme this quote could be helpful in exploring is what the book has to say about leadership. Ralph does not have natural leadership abilities like Jack, and he is not as intelligent as Piggy, yet he has leadership "thrust upon him." He takes his responsibility seriously throughout the novel, and he demonstrates that a good leader denies his own desires at times for the good of the group. Here he operates outside his comfort zone and skill set to help the entire group of boys who are now under his authority.

How would you describe Irene from F. Scott Fitzgerald's "Winter Dreams"?

In the story "Winter Dreams," Irene is a minor character; you might even say that her existence is more of a plot device than anything else. We know that she was engaged to Dexter briefly, before he slipped back into his obsession with pursuing Judy. But what do we really know about Irene besides this role that she plays in the plot? 

Irene was light-haired and sweet and honorable, and a little stout, and she had two suitors whom she pleasantly relinquished when Dexter formally asked her to marry him.

So as the narrator tells us, Irene has a good moral character, is kind, and is perhaps not unattractive but a little on the heavy side. I mention that because it contrasts so starkly with Judy's character; we're told over and over about Judy's startling beauty. Here's something else we know, but it's not much:

[Dexter] stayed late at the dance. He sat for an hour with Irene Scheerer and talked about books and about music. He knew very little about either.

Apparently, then, Irene is probably a good conversationalist and knowledgeable about literature and music. The narration tells us that Dexter and Irene are engaged a few months later, but there's certainly no description of a romance between them that would even slightly compare to Dexter's romance with Judy in terms of passion and excitement.

Here's one more definite thing we're told about Irene:

It gave him a sense of solidity to go with her [to the dance at the University Club]--she was so sturdily popular, so intensely "great."

Those details make Irene seem a bit more interesting than before. Readers at this point may wonder if it's Dexter's indifference to Irene that makes her seem dull; perhaps her personality really is just as sparkling as Judy's, but it's unappreciated by Dexter.

Finally, the story is distinctly lacking in detail about what happens to Irene after Dexter abruptly breaks off their engagement in order to chase Judy some more. We could infer that Irene took the news well, without making a scene or seeking revenge on either Dexter or Judy, evincing again her own good social skills and classy personality.

What is the family expecting to arrive on Saturday in A Raisin in the Sun?

In Act 1, Scene 1, it's early morning and Walter is sleepy. He's awake, but he can't get into the bathroom yet to get himself ready for the day; somebody is already in there. So he's just standing there tiredly, talking to Ruth, and he asks her, "Check coming today?"

Ruth chides him, saying that the check isn't supposed to be there until Saturday and to quit bothering her about money.

So we know, so far, that it's a check, and a large enough amount of money that Walter is excited about it and bugging Ruth. Travis also asks about it excitedly at breakfast.

As the play continues, we figure out that because the father had an insurance policy when he died, his family is owed $10,000: that's the amount of the check that's on its way. At the time this play takes place, that's enough money to buy a house big enough for the whole family! So you can see why the kids are excited about the check that's supposed to arrive soon.

What is melting?

Melting is a phase change process, specifically meaning the change of phase from solid to liquid. In simple terms, when something melts, it changes from a solid state to a liquid state. That is what happens when you leave the ice cream out of the freezer for a long time or when we heat metals to high temperatures. The temperature at which a substance melts is known as its melting point. 

Melting is a physical change since the chemical composition of the substance remains the same. For example, when we melt iron, it still remains iron and the only change it undergoes is a change of state (from solid to liquid). Generally, substances expand on melting. That is, they occupy a larger volume after melting. 

Hope this helps. 

What is Giardia?

Definition

Giardia, a genus of protozoan flagellates, is the most common intestinal-disease-causing pathogen in humans worldwide. An estimated 33 percent of all people in developing countries have giardiasis, a protozoan infection caused by Giardia lamblia. Though the disease is less common in developed countries, it is still present, affecting an estimated 2 percent of adults and 6–8 percent of children. G. lamblia was first discovered in 1681 by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, who examined his own diarrheal feces under a rudimentary microscope. This species is also sometimes known as G. intestinalis or G. duodenalis.

Natural Habitat and Features

Giardia's natural environment is in rivers, lakes, and streams. People who hike or backpack may develop giardiasis by drinking water from these sources. In its active disease-causing stage, Giardia resembles a pear that has been cut in half lengthwise. Once consumed, the parasite rapidly activates.

Giardia also can be transmitted in undercooked or raw foods, although waterborne contamination is believed far more common. When transmitted in food, it is most often transmitted through contaminated water used to prepare food or by an infected food handler. Giardia has also been reported in day-care centers where infant diapers are changed and proper sanitation has not been practiced. Animal contamination of food may cause infection in humans, and some cross-species reports of G. lamblia have been reported. Giardia also infects amphibians, rodents, birds, voles, and muskrats.

There are two key aspects to the life cycle of Giardia, including encystation and active infection. In the cyst stage, Giardia protects itself by creating a hard cyst, in which it can survive for long periods in damp, cool environments. The cyst comprises 40 percent protein and 60 percent carbohydrate; some studies have shown that the cyst is up to 0.5 micrometers (µm) in thickness. The cysts are oval-shaped and have outer and inner layers that form two protective membranes.

Ingestion of as few as ten cysts can trigger an active infection in a host; an average bowel movement of a person infected with giardiasis could contain three hundred million cysts. Once ingested, the parasite is activated by the gastric acid of the host, which triggers excystation (the end of the cyst stage) and the beginning of the second phase of the life cycle, in which the cyst is deactivated and activation of Giardia occurs. Between two and four trophozoites (the active stage of the organism) may be excysted from each cyst. Each trophozoite reproduces itself at five- to ten-minute intervals. The reproduction stage is not completely understood, and experts disagree on whether the trophozoites reproduce via cell division or sexual reproduction (which has never been observed).

Excystation occurs in about fifteen minutes, starting with the flagella breaking through the cyst. The parasite uses its sucking disk like a suction cup to attach to the intestinal wall of the host. The trophozoite of G. lamblia is up to 9 µm wide and 15 µm long. G. lamblia consumes some of the nutrients eaten by the host before they can be used by the host. People who are most susceptible to infection are those whose immune systems are compromised.

There are two primary genetic groups of G. lamblia that affect humans: assemblage A and assemblage B. Assemblage B appears to be more common in humans overall, though assemblage A predominates in some parts of the world.

G. lamblia can survive a moderate level of chlorine and, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), can remain alive for up to one hour in chlorinated pools. Children and adults can become infected in pools that house the germ by swallowing the pool water.

G. lamblia never enters the bloodstream of the infected host. Its actions are not entirely understood by experts, but it appears that the pathogen may release substances such as lectins or proteinases that can damage the epithelium of the host. Giardia may also trigger proteinase-activated receptors by the host, although Giardia itself never invades the skin. Some research also indicates that Giardia can cause a hypersecretion of chloride in infected humans and the malabsorption of sodium, glucose, and water, which together may be responsible for fluid accumulation of the host during infection.

According to the CDC, 16,868 cases of giardiasis were reported in the United States in 2011, and 15,223 cases were reported in 2012.

Pathogenicity and Clinical Significance

Up to three stool specimens are needed to identify Giardia, and only sensitive immunoassays should be used to identify this pathogen. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is one means of testing for Giardia, as is direct fluorescence testing (DFA). Cysts can be readily seen with the fluorescence method.

Drug Susceptibility

The first-line treatment for G. lamblia is metronidazole, given in a dosage of 250 milligrams three times per day for up to ten days. Resistance to metronidazole has been reported in about 20 percent of cases. If such a resistance occurs, tinidazole may be given three times per day for seven days. If the pathogen is resistant to both metronidazole and tinidazole, then other drugs may be prescribed, including albendazole, furazolidone, and quinacrine.

Bibliography

Ankarklev, Johan, et al. “Behind the Smile: Cell Biology and Disease Mechanisms of Giardia Species.” Nature Reviews Microbiology 8.6 (2010): 413–22. Academic Search Complete. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Buret, Andre G. “Mechanisms of Epithelial Dysfunction in Giardiasis.” Gut 56.3 (2007): 316–17. Academic Search Complete. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Espelage, Werner, et al. “Characteristics and Risk Factors for Symptomatic Giardia lamblia Infections in Germany.” BMC Public Health 10.41 (2010): n. pag. Academic Search Complete. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Hill, David R., and Theodore E. Nash. “ Giardia lamblia.” Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. Ed. John E. Bennett, Raphael Dolin, and Martin J. Blaser. 8th ed. Vol. 2. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2015. 3154–60. Print.

Kucik, Corry Jeb, Gary L. Martin, and Brett V. Sortor. “Common Intestinal Parasites.” American Family Physician 69.5 (2004): 1161–69. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Painter, Julia E., et al. “Giardiasis Surveillance: United States, 2011–2012.” MMWR Surveillance Summaries 1 May 2015: 15–25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Post, Robert E., and Barry L. Hainer. “Gastrointestinal Tract Infections.” Management of Antimicrobials in Infectious Diseases: Impact of Antibiotic Resistance. Ed. Arch G. Mainous III and Claire Pomeroy. 2nd ed. New York: Springer, 2010. 231–65. Print.

Schlossberg, David, ed. Infections of Leisure. 4th ed. Washington: ASM, 2009. Print.

What is local anesthesia?

Indications and Procedures

Local anesthesia is the application of numbing agents to temporarily reduce or remove transmission of nerve sensations for short surgery or other localized procedures. A secondary use is continuous infusion administration for temporary relief of acute or chronic pain conditions. Local anesthesia in its truest form is limited to small body areas; conduction, or regional, anesthesia
simply extends localized administration to a larger body area. The anesthetic agents can be applied to the skin topically or can be injected under the skin into tissue directly around a nerve ending. Both methods provide short-term blockage of sensations between peripheral nerve endings or bundles and the brain by interacting with sodium ion channels around the nerve-conduction pathways; the local anesthetics alter
ion gradients across cell walls at the site to prevent nerves from conducting sensory information. Local anesthetics in any form do not provide sedation or whole-body effects, because they affect the peripheral nervous system, in contrast with the sedative effects of general anesthesia on the central nervous system. The duration of the nerve block may be proportional to the amount or rate of drug administered and the potency of the anesthetic selected; however, the intensity and duration of effect also may vary depending on type of drug, administration site and method (for example, topical administration is less intense than tissue injection), size of the nerve sheaths affected (for example, smaller sheaths or individual, rather than bundled, nerves may react more intensely to similar doses), and interactions with other drugs (for example, antihypertensive medications) or conditions.

The two main classes of local anesthetics are the esters and the amides, which have similar aromatic and amine groups in the chemical structures but differ in the intermediate group. Esters, which include procaine (Novocaine) and benzocaine, are hydrolyzed during breakdown, whereas amides, which include lidocaine and bupivicaine, are broken down by cytochrome enzymes in the liver. Both types come as sprays, patches, creams or lotions, and injections that generally have half-lives of less than two hours. Both can be given with vasoconstrictors, such as epinephrine, to slow blood-vessel distribution of the anesthetic away from local tissue and to improve the duration of the numbing effect at the application site.

Uses and Complications

In a surgical context, local anesthesia is most often used for dental, minor surgical, and emergency procedures. Emergency-department techniques such as sutures may require topical agents or an injection into the tissue for deeper or longer suturing. Many types of invasive dental procedures, such as cavity fillings and root canals, require anesthetic injection over a large area of nerve bundles in the oral cavity. Dermatologic procedures such as mole removal require topical or injected anesthetic nerve block at nerve endings. Topical skin numbing prior to drug injections is also common, such as topical lidocaine/prilocaine cream applied before vaccines given to children. Spinal anesthesia procedures block the peripheral nervous system conduction directly where the peripheral and central nervous systems meet to prevent sensation during cesarean section deliveries, cytoscopies, and other pelvic procedures for which general anesthesia is not required. After the anesthetic is administered by skin absorption or injection, nerve block typically occurs within approximately fifteen minutes and ranges from blockage of pain sensations only to full blockage of pain and temperature sensitivity. The extent of numbness is proportional to the potency and dose administered, with pain inhibition followed sequentially by touch, heat, and muscle-control inhibition.

Use of local anesthesia for pain is less common. Continuous catheter infusion with low doses of local anesthetics provides relief of acute pain, such as during treatment of a patient who has experienced trauma, and may have fewer side effects than analgesic treatments. Chronic pain may be successfully numbed by similar use of anesthesia, but as yet there is no evidence of long-term effects beyond the time of administration.

Although topical or local injected applications are safer than generalized anesthesia, or sedation, risks are still present. Allergy to para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) can cause a cross-reaction to ester anesthetics, because hydrolysis of an ester anesthetic releases PABA as a breakdown product. Although rare, allergy to amide anesthetics is also possible; both allergies can manifest as a rash, wheezing, or even anaphylactic shock. Common side effects of both anesthetic drug classes are shallow breathing, altered heart rate, anxiety, tremors, dizziness, prolonged numbness, and tinnitus (ringing sensation in the ear). Although unlikely, central nervous system depression with associated bradycardia and cardiac depression are possible, especially with extremely high doses or rates of administration. Potentially irreversible nerve-conduction block can occur within five minutes of toxic doses of anesthesia, and methemoglobinemia—evidenced by shortness of breath, fatigue, dizziness, and weakness—has occurred with benzocaine in particular. Such extreme side effects are more likely to occur if the patient has preexisting renal or liver problems that prevent adequate drug clearance, is pregnant, or is very young or very old. Improper injection into the vascular system or directly into a nerve sheath can also lead to these toxicities. Typically, however, nerve block from the correct application of local anesthetics will reverse on its own within a few hours.

Perspective and Prospects

Since the isolation of cocaine from coca plants in the late 1800s, interest in using chemical agents to reduce sensory effects without sedation has grown substantially. Procaine was derived from cocaine in 1904 by Alfred Einhorn to reduce toxicity associated with cocaine use; the more concentrated amide drug lidocaine, still one of the most widely used local anesthetic agents, followed in 1943, and others in the amide class have improved upon the potency of lidocaine. Local anesthetics have since played an expanding role in medicine, from large-area nerve blocks for cesarean deliveries to short-term relief as a treatment for chronic pain via catheter infusion. In the twenty-first century, efforts to standardize office-based anesthesia are developing because of the prevalence of local anesthesia administration for routine outpatient skin, dental, and minor surgical procedures.

Long-term local anesthesia is being developed that could provide numbing effects for as long as two to three days, with research focused mainly on the natural agent saxitoxin. Such extended localized numbness would provide pain relief throughout a procedure and afterward during the period of most acute pain and recovery time. Saxitoxin is unrelated to cocaine and the other amide and ester agents; it is found in many varieties of fish and works by blocking transmission at extracellular, rather than intracellular, sodium channels.

Bibliography

“Anesthesia.” MedlinePlus, May 2, 2013.

Auletta, Michael J., and Roy C. Grekin. Local Anesthesia for Dermatologic Surgery. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1991.

Dinehart, Scott M. “Topical, Local, and Regional Anesthesia.” In Cutaneous Surgery, edited by Ronald G. Wheeland. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1994.

Epstein-Barash, Hila, et al. “Prolonged Duration Local Anesthesia with Minimal Toxicity.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106, no. 17 (April 28, 2009): 7125–7130.

Feldman, J. M., J. S. Gravenstein, and I. Kalli, eds. Office-Based Anesthesia Safety. Special issue of Anesthesia Patient Safety Foundation Newsletter 15, no. 1 (Spring, 2000).

Huang, Wilber, and Allison Vidimos. “Topical Anesthetics in Dermatology.” Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 43, no. 2 (August, 2000): 286–298.

Larson, Merlin D. “History of Anesthetic Practice.” In Miller’s
Anesthesia, edited by Ronald D. Miller et al. 7th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2010.

Malamed, Stanley F. Handbook of Local Anesthesia. 6th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier, 2013.

Marx, John A., et al., eds. Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby/Elsevier, 2009.

McCoy, Krisha, and Rosalyn Carson-DeWitt. “Regional Anesthesia.” Health Library, December 30, 2011.

Based on the twist at the end of the tale, how does the pier glass in the apartment symbolically relate to Della in "The Gift of the Magi"?

The pier-glass symbolizes Della’s delight in her hair, which she decides to give up out of love for her husband.

Della and Jim are very poor. Della is upset because she can’t raise enough money to buy her husband a present. She looks at herself in the pier-glass often, we are told. This is because she loves her hair.

There was a pier-glass between the windows of the room. Perhaps you have seen a pier-glass in an $8 flat. A very thin and very agile person may, by observing his reflection in a rapid sequence of longitudinal strips, obtain a fairly accurate conception of his looks. Della, being slender, had mastered the art.

Although Della’s hair is her most prized possession, she loves her husband more. Some things are more valuable than hair. Hair grows back, after all. Christmas comes but once a year, and it is an opportunity to show her husband how much she loves him.

Della seems to already know that selling her hair is an option because she grabs her coat and takes off out the door after looking at her hair in the pier-glass. She goes immediately to Madame Sofronie and asks if she will buy her hair.

"I buy hair," said Madame. "Take yer hat off and let's have a sight at the looks of it."

Down rippled the brown cascade.

"Twenty dollars," said Madame, lifting the mass with a practised hand.

"Give it to me quick," said Della.

Della does not hesitate. She doesn’t need to, because she already decided before she came in. She will trade her most prized possession for money. All she is interested in is getting as much money as she can so that she can buy her Jim a present worthy of him. She buys him the watch-fob, and he probably would have loved the gift if he hadn’t sold the watch to buy her a comb-set for her hair.

In Chapter 11 of "The Cay," there is a metaphor on a certain page (p. 81 of my edition). The page begins by discussing Phillip's growing...

In Chapter 11 of The Cay, Phillip and Timothy are stranded on the cay after the ship Phillip is traveling on is torpedoed. Phillip, who has lost his sight, has become dependent on Timothy, but Timothy also insists that Phillip become as independent as possible. To this end, Timothy makes Phillip a cane. Phillip also navigates around the island using "the vine rope," or the rope that Timothy has made for him. Phillip can use this vine rope to get to the beach on his own. If Timothy is fishing on the reef, Phillip can use the vine rope to get to the beach to light the fire if he hears a plane and wants to draw its attention. Phillip has a measure of independence by using this rope. 

Phillip says, "Our cay seemed a lovely island and I wished that I could see it. I planned to walk around it at least once a day, following the vine rope from the ridge to the beach" (page 80-81). He also says that he is becoming less dependent on the rope and on Timothy himself, so the vine rope is a metaphor. It is a symbol of the way in which Timothy has helped Phillip become more independent, as Phillip can use this rope to navigate by himself.

Later in this chapter, Timothy says the island has a jumbi, or evil spirit, and he thinks the cat might be the evil spirit. However, this is not a metaphor, or symbol. Instead, the idea of the evil spirit is foreshadowing or predicting the dangerous events that are to come later in the novel. 

What is genetic code?

Elements of the Genetic Code

Every time a cell divides, each daughter cell receives a full set of instructions that allows it to grow and divide. The instructions are contained within DNA. These long nucleic acid molecules are made of nucleotides linked end to end. Four kinds of nucleotides are commonly found in the DNA of all organisms. These are designated A, G, T, and C for the variable component of the nucleotide (adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine, respectively). The sequence of the nucleotides in the DNA chain provides the information necessary for manufacturing all the proteins required for survival, but information must be decoded.

DNA contains a variety of codes. For example, there are codes for identifying where to start and where to stop transcribing an RNA molecule. RNA molecules are nearly identical in structure to the single strands of DNA molecules. In RNA, the nucleotide uracil (U) is used in place of T and each nucleotide of RNA contains a ribose sugar rather than a deoxyribose sugar. RNA molecules are made using DNA as a template by a process called transcription. The resulting RNA molecule contains the same information as the DNA from which it was made, but in a complementary form. Some RNAs function directly in the structure and activity of cells, but most are used to produce proteins with the help of ribosomes, organelles within the cytoplasm of each cell. This latter type of RNA is known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The ribosome machinery scans the RNA nucleotide sequence to find signals to start the synthesis of polypeptides, the molecules of which proteins are made. When the start signals are found, the machinery reads the code in the RNA to convert it into a sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide, a process called translation. Translation stops at termination signals. The term “genetic code” is sometimes reserved for the rules for converting a sequence of nucleotides into a sequence of amino acids.

The Protein Genetic Code: General Characteristics

Experiments in the laboratories of Har Gobind Khorana, Heinrich Matthaei, Marshall Nirenberg, and others led to the deciphering of the protein genetic code. They knew that the code was more complicated than a simple one-to-one correspondence between nucleotides and amino acids, since there were about twenty different amino acids in proteins and only four nucleotides in RNA. They found that three adjacent nucleotides code for each amino acid. Since each of the three nucleotide positions can be occupied by any one of four different nucleotides, sixty-four different sets are possible. Each set of three nucleotides is called a codon. Each codon leads to the insertion of one kind of amino acid in the growing polypeptide chain.

Two of the twenty amino acids (tryptophan and methionine) have only a single codon. Nine amino acids are each represented by a pair of codons, differing only at the third position. Because of this difference, the third position in the codons for these amino acids is often called the wobble position. For six amino acids, any one of the four nucleotides occupies the wobble position. The three codons for isoleucine can be considered as belonging to this class, with the exception that AUG is reserved for methionine. Three amino acids (leucine, arginine, and serine) are unusual in that each can be specified by any one of six codons.

Punctuation

The protein genetic code is often said to be “commaless.” The bond connecting two codons cannot be distinguished from bonds connecting nucleotides within codons. There are no spaces or commas to identify which three nucleotides constitute a codon. As a result, the choice of which three nucleotides are to be read as the first codon during translation is very important. For example, if “EMA” is chosen as the first set of meaningful letters in the following string of letters, the result is gibberish:
TH EMA NHI TTH EBA TAN DTH EBA TBI THI M.

On the other hand, if “THE” is chosen as the first set of three letters, the message becomes clear:
THE MAN HIT THE BAT AND THE BAT BIT HIM.

The commaless nature of the code means that one sequence of nucleotides can be read three different ways, starting at the first, second, or third letter. Still, the genetic code does have “punctuation.” The beginning of each coding sequence has a start codon, which is always the AUG. Each coding sequence also has a stop codon, which acts like a period at the end of a sentence, denoting the end of the coding sequence.

These ways of reading are called reading frames.
A frame is said to be open if there are no stop codons for a reasonable distance. In most mRNAs, only one reading frame is open for any appreciable length. However, in some mRNAs, more than one reading frame is open. Some mRNAs can produce two, rarely three, different polypeptide sequences.

The Near Universality of the Code

The universal genetic code was discovered primarily through experiments with extracts from the bacterium
Escherichia coli
and from rabbit cells. Further work suggested that the code was the same in other organisms. It came to be known as the universal genetic code. The code was deciphered before scientists knew how to determine the sequence of nucleotides in DNA efficiently. After nucleotide sequences began to be determined, scientists could, using the universal genetic code, predict the sequence of amino acids. Comparison with the actual amino acid sequence revealed excellent overall agreement.

Nevertheless, the universal genetic code assignments of codons to amino acids had apparent exceptions. Some turned out to be caused by programmed changes in the mRNA information. In selected codons of some mRNA, a C is changed to a U. In others, an A is changed so that it acts like a G. Editing of mRNA does not change the code used by the ribosomal machinery, but it does mean that the use of DNA sequences to predict protein sequences has pitfalls.

Some exceptions to the universal genetic code are true variations in the code. For example, the UGA universal stop codon codes for tryptophan in some bacteria and in fungal, insect, and vertebrate mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Ciliated protozoans use UAA and UAG, reserved as stop codons in all other organisms, for the insertion of glutamine residues. Methionine, which has only one codon in the universal genetic code (AUG), is also encoded by AUA in vertebrate and insect mtDNA and in some, but not all, fungal mitochondria. Vertebrate mtDNA also uses the universal arginine codons AGA and AGG as stop codons. AGA and AGG are serine rather than arginine codons in insect mtDNA.

Interpreting the Code

How is the code interpreted? The mRNA codons organize small RNA molecules called transfer RNA (tRNA). There is at least one tRNA for each of the twenty amino acids. They are L-shaped molecules. At one end tRNAs have a set of three nucleotides (the anticodon) that can pair with the three nucleotides of the mRNA codon. They do not pair with codons for other amino acids. At the other end tRNAs have a site for the attachment of an amino acid.

Special enzymes called aminoacyl tRNA synthetases (RS enzymes) attach the correct amino acids to the correct tRNAs. There is one RS enzyme for each of the twenty amino acids. Interpretation is possible because each RS enzyme can bind only one kind of amino acid and only to tRNA that pairs with the codons for that amino acid. The key to this specificity is a special code in each tRNA located near where the amino acid gets attached. This code is sometimes referred to as the “second genetic code.” After binding the correct amino acid and tRNA, the RS enzyme attaches the two molecules with a covalent bond. These charged tRNAs, called aminoacyl-tRNAs, are ready to participate in protein synthesis directed by the codons of the mRNA. Information is stored in RNA in forms other than the triplet code. A special tRNA for methionine exists to initiate all peptide chains. It responds to AUG. However, proteins also have methionines in the main part of the polypeptide chain. Those methionines are carried by a different tRNA that also responds to AUG. The ribosome and associated factors must distinguish an initiating AUG from one for an internal methionine.

Distinction occurs differently in eukaryotes and bacteria. In bacteria, AUG serves as a start codon only if it is near a sequence that can pair with a section of the RNA in the ribosome. Two things are required of eukaryotic start (AUG) codons: First, they must be in a proper context of surrounding nucleotides; second, they must be the first AUG from the mRNA beginning that is in such a context. Context is also important for the incorporation of the unusual amino acid selenocysteine into several proteins. In a limited number of genes, a special UGA stop codon is used as a codon for selenocysteine. Sequences additional to UGA are needed for selenocysteine incorporation. Surrounding nucleotide residues also allow certain termination codons to be bypassed. For example, the mRNA from tobacco mosaic virus encodes two polypeptides, both starting at the same place; however, one is longer than the other. The extension is caused by the reading of a UAG stop codon by tRNA charged with tyrosine.

The production of two proteins with identical beginnings but different ends can also occur by frame shifting. In this mechanism, signals in the mRNA direct the ribosome machinery to advance or backtrack one nucleotide in its reading of the mRNA codons. Frame shifting occurs at a specific sequence in the RNA. Often the code for a frame shift includes a string of seven or more identical nucleotides and a complex RNA structure (a “pseudoknot”).

Further codes are embedded in DNA. The linear sequence of amino acids, derived from DNA, has a code for folding in three-dimensional space, a code for its delivery to the proper location, a code for its modification by the addition of other chemical groups, and a code for its degradation. The production of mRNA requires nucleotide codes for beginning RNA synthesis, for stopping its synthesis, and for stitching together codon-containing regions (exons) should these be separated by noncoding regions (introns). RNA also contains signals that can tag them for rapid degradation. DNA has a code recognized by protein complexes for the initiation of DNA replication and signals recognized by enzymes that catalyze DNA rearrangements.

Impact and Applications

A major consequence of the near universality of the genetic code is that biotechnologists can move genes from one species into another and have them still expressed correctly. Since the code is the same in both organisms, the same protein is produced. This has resulted in the large-scale production of specific proteins in bacteria, yeast, plants, and domestic animals. These proteins are of immense pharmaceutical, industrial, and research value.

Scientists developed rapid methods for sequencing nucleotides in DNA in the 1970s. Since the genetic code was known, it suddenly became easier to predict the amino acid sequence of a protein from the nucleotide sequence of its gene than it was to determine the amino acid sequence of the protein by chemical methods. The instant knowledge of the amino acid sequence of a particular protein greatly simplified predictions regarding protein function. This has resulted in the molecular understanding of many inherited human diseases and the potential development of rational therapies based on this new knowledge.

Key Terms



codon

:

a three-nucleotide unit of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) that determines the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by a gene





nucleotides


:

long nucleic acid molecules that form DNA and RNA, linked end to end; the sequences of these nucleotides in the DNA chain provides the genetic information




reading frame

:

the phasing of reading codons, determined by which base the first codon begins with; certain mutations can also change the reading frame





RNA


:


ribonucleic acid, a molecule similar to DNA but single-stranded and with a ribose rather than a deoxyribose sugar; RNA molecules are formed using DNA as a template and then use their complementary genetic information to conduct cellular processes or form proteins





transfer RNA (tRNA)


:

molecules that carry amino acids to messenger RNA (mRNA) codons, allowing amino acid polymerization into proteins




translation

:

the process of forming proteins according to instructions contained in an mRNA molecule





Bibliography

Clark, Brian F. C. The Genetic Code and Protein Biosynthesis. 2d ed. Baltimore: E. Arnold, 1984. Print.

Clark, David, and Lonnie Russell. Molecular Biology: Made Simple and Fun. 4th ed. St. Louis: Cache River, 2010. Print.

Judson, Horace Freeland. The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology. 1996. Commemorative ed. Cold Spring Harbor: CSHLP, 2013. Print.

Kay, Lily E. Who Wrote the Book of Life? A History of the Genetic Code. Stanford: Stanford UP, 2001. Print.

Leja, Darryl, National Human Genome Research Institute. "Digital Media Database: Genetic Code, RNA Codon Table."Genome.gov. NHGRI, 12 June 2010. Web. 25 July 2014.

Olby, Robert. Francis Crick: Hunter of Life’s Secrets. Cold Spring Harbor: CSHLP, 2009. Print.

Ribas de Pouplana, Lluís, ed. The Genetic Code and the Origin of Life. New York: Kluwer, 2004. Print.

Ridley, Matt. Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code. 2006. New York: Atlas, 2014. Digital file.

Trainor, Lynn E. H. The Triplet Genetic Code: The Key to Molecular Biology. River Edge: World Scientific, 2001. Print.

Tropp, Burton E., and David Freifelder. “Protein Synthesis: The Genetic Code.” Molecular Biology: Genes to Proteins. 3d ed. Sudbury: Jones, 2008. Print.

US Dept. of Energy Human Genome Project. Human Genome Project Information Archive 1990–2003. US DoE Human Genome Project, 21 Mar. 2014. Web. 25 July 2014.

US Dept. of Energy, Scripps Research Inst. Expanding the Eukaryotic Genetic Code. Washington, DC: US DoE, 2012. Digital file.

Watson, James D., Alexander Gann, and J. A. Witkowski. The Annotated and Illustrated Double Helix. New York: Simon, 2012. Print

Watson, James D., and Andrew Berry. DNA: The Secret of Life. 2003. New York: Knopf, 2013. Digital file.

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In Lyddie, what is one example of symbolism in Chapters 1 through 10?

An obvious symbol throughout the book Lyddie is the bear that Lyddie stares down in chapter 1 and which she remembers often. Lyddie's encounter with the bear represents her ability to deal successfully with challenges and danger.

Another interesting symbol occurs in chapter 4. When Lyddie starts working at the tavern, she gets to know Tryphena, the cook. As Lyddie churns butter one day, Tryphena tells her the story of two frogs who fell into the pail of milk. One drowned immediately, but the other one kept kicking and kicking until it formed a pat of butter on which it could float. Tryphena explains the symbolism of the story: "Some folks are natural born kickers. They can always find a way to turn disaster into butter." The first frog could represent Lyddie's mother, who gives up on life after her husband leaves the family. The second frog represents Lyddie, who doesn't give up and works with all her might to save her family's farm and to try to make a better life for herself and her siblings. 

The frog story brings to Lyddie's mind the private joke between Lyddie and Charlie: "We can still hop." Their mother had written to them with her incorrect spelling, meaning to say, "We can still hope," but instead writing, "We can still hop." Lyddie's mother's approach, to hope vainly without "kicking," results in her drowning in her grief. But Lyddie, like the frog, can still hop. She kicks and takes action, and that keeps her afloat until her life improves. 

When Charlie comes to visit Lyddie, she finds little to talk about. After he leaves, she wishes she had told him about the frogs. Connecting Charlie with the frog story symbolizes that he, too, will survive because, like Lyddie, he can still hop.

What were the lasting effects of the French Revolution on global history?

The French Revolution, unlike the American Revolution before it, was the first example of a powerful monarchy being overthrown on its home turf, not by another monarchy, but by its own subjects. This event sent shockwaves of fear and panic across Europe and put every monarch on notice that his or her power was not absolute, as has been assumed for centuries, and that when a downtrodden, desperate people demanded reforms, even a king with an enormous army and vast wealth could not ignore those calls for change.

The French Revolution not only put monarchs on notice that they had better listen to their subjects, which was an absurd notion at the time, but it also sent a clarion call to the burgeoning working classes, merchants and peasants of the world that they did not have to resign themselves and their children to a life of oppression and political impotence. If those people organized and were willing to risk their lives for change, then they could perhaps prevail on even the most arrogant of monarchs to address their grievances.

As a result of the French Revolution, the British Monarchy and aristocracy accelerated a push to reform how peasants could use common land, and gave ordinary citizens more power to elect members of parliament's lower house (The House of Commons), so that ordinary English citizens could seek redress for their grievances without overthrowing and killing the royal family. These kinds of reforms began to take root in other countries worried about revolution: the Netherlands, as well as various German and Italian principalities. 

Yet the French Revolution also had a chilling effect. As members of the National Assembly and Triumvirate, as well as ordinary Parisians, were picked off and publicly executed by Robespierre's ironically-named "Public Safety Committee," which became the instrument of power under his Reign of Terror, advocates for revolution in other countries looked on in horror as the reformers became worse than those they had deposed.

This legacy of revolutionaries becoming more despotic than the monarchs they replaced also had a thunderous impact on global history. Counter-revolutions like the ones that shook France over the next century gave many reformers pause, and also shored up support for certain tyrannical monarchs like the Russian Tzars. Additionally, many intellectuals and merchants in various countries across Europe saw how revolution could lead to even worse outcomes, and began to seek change through more democratic means such as constitutional monarchies.

In other cases, despotic monarchs used the example of France to convince enough of their dissatisfied subjects that a heavy-handed king was better than the murderous chaos of mob rule. So while the French Revolution made the idea of overthrowing unjust monarchs seem possible for first time, it also gave serious pause to those who would do so, and in the long run, forced would-be-revolutionaries to refine their theories of democratic government, and to look towards the American system for guidance rather than to that of the French.

Colonists were united by their ties to England. What tied them to England?

By answering this question I am going to assume that we are referring to the English colonists in America before the Revolutionary War.  First, there was a common language, though American English was starting to change and it would change more radically after the War of 1812.  There are commercial ties--England was the colonists' primary trade partner.  A lot of finished goods in America were made in England.  Most Americans shared a common Protestant religion with England and relied on English redcoats to defend them from traditional Spanish and French enemies as well as native groups.  There were also ties of English common law which gave some freedoms of property ownership and civil liberties.  Most Americans before 1770 were very much pro-British and even during the time that Britain increased taxes many Americans still wanted reconciliation with the British Crown.  

In The Boy in the Striped Pajamas, describe each character's feelings towards Jewish people.

In The Boy in the Striped Pajamas, specific characters' feelings towards Jewish people reflect their position on Nazism.

Boyne's book fits in the genre of Young Adult/ Historical Fiction. He does not emphasize how people of the time period were pressured into committing atrocities but resisted due to personal conviction. The book establishes a much clearer paradigm, tailor made for its audience.  Either characters are in support of Nazism or they are against it.  Ultimately, the book's moral paradigm is reflective of how characters perceive Jewish people.

Characters in the novel who displayed negative feelings towards Jewish people supported Nazism.  For example, since Lieutenant Kotler embraces Nazism, he views Jewish people as a means to display power.  In his actions towards Pavel, Kotler personifies the Nazi feelings towards Jewish people. Father's view towards Jewish people is connected towards career advancement. He continually justifies his move to and position at Auschwitz as "very important" in the Nazi structure.  His feelings towards Jewish people are linked to his job as a Nazi. He does not voice full-throated dislike towards people of the Judaic faith. However, his job is to advance "the final solution" when it comes to Jewish people.  His attitudes towards them are linked to his career's advancement. In much the same way, Gretel sees Jewish individuals as "not really human" because of her devotion towards Nazism. She sees Nazism as a way to gain social acceptance. Accordingly, a desire for popularity in Nazi circles forms her attitudes towards Jewish people.  

Characters in the novel who are not supportive of Nazism display supportive feelings towards Jewish people. When Bruno's grandmother chastises her son for the "terrible, terrible things you do," it is clear that she supports Jewish people because of her rejection of Nazism.  Bruno's mother reluctantly agrees to move the family to Auschwitz, but it is clear she is not in favor of what is being done to Jewish people.  She underscores this in her action of leaving Auschwitz with Gretel at the end of the novel.  Bruno befriends Shmuel, demonstrates respect towards Pavel, and dislikes Kotler.  These actions show support for Jewish people precisely because they repudiate Nazi ideology.

How does Steinbeck present the feeling of loneliness in Of Mice and Men?

In this novel, the workers themselves lead lonely lives. Although most of the story shows the majority of the men working and living together, these itinerant ranch workers often changed jobs frequently and moved on to other jobs individually. George, and others in the story, note how this leads most men to waste all of their money on alcohol and prostitutes. With no family, no settled home, and no continuous friendships, they resort to this lifestyle. 

George and Lennie endeavor to break this trend. By sticking together, they will avoid that lonely fate and instead of wasting their money, they are attempting to save it and buy their own land. It is a dream that keeps both of them going, but it is particularly encouraging for Lennie. George always recites for Lennie how most workers waste their lives, whereas he and Lennie are pursuing a dream together: 

Guys like us, that work on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world. They got no fambly. They don’t belong no place. They come to a ranch an’ work up a stake and then they go into town and blow their stake, and the first thing you know they’re poundin’ their tail on some other ranch. They ain’t got nothing to look ahead to. 

With us it ain’t like that. We got a future. We got somebody to talk to that gives a damn about us. (Chapter 1)

Were it not for George, Lennie would be completely alone. With no social skills, he would be a social outcast. 

The other notable lonely characters are Curley's wife, Candy, and Crooks. Curley's wife is the only woman on the ranch. She is constantly seeking attention and she laments the fact that she missed her chance to pursue her own dream: 

Coulda been in the movies, an’ had nice clothes—all them nice clothes like they wear. An’ I coulda sat in them big hotels, an’ had pitchers took of me. (Chapter 5) 

Candy feels encroaching loneliness. In other words, in his old age, he knows that he soon will not be of much use as a worker. With that fear lurking, he latches on to George's and Lennie's dream of owning a farm and offers to work with them. 

Crooks is perhaps the loneliest character in the novel. Although he works "with" the other ranchers, he is relegated to his own living and sleeping quarters. The other men do not invite him when they go out for the evening. Naturally, Crooks is standoffish when Lennie tries to befriend him in Crooks' own room. He suggests that if they don't accept him, why should he accept them. However, he warms up to Lennie and begins to share a bit of Lennie's dream of owning his own land. That interest is squashed when Curley's wife shows up and threatens him. With her position as the boss's son's wife, Crooks retreats. 

What is plasma?

Structure and Functions

A clear, straw-colored liquid, plasma makes up about 55 percent of the total blood volume. Although its major component is water (90 percent by volume), plasma also contains glucose, proteins, clotting factors, hormones, carbon dioxide, and dissolved salts and minerals. The main proteins in plasma are albumin, globulins, and clotting proteins, particularly fibrinogen. Gamma globulin is an important component of the immune system. Mineral ions in plasma include sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, and magnesium. These electrolytes are essential in maintaining fluid balance, nerve conduction, muscle contraction, blood clotting, and pH balance in the body.

Suspended within the plasma are red blood cells (erythrocytes), five kinds of white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes). In addition to carrying these blood cells, plasma transports nutrients, waste products, antibodies, clotting agents, and chemical messengers to help maintain a healthy body. Plasma circulates dissolved nutrients throughout the body, where they are diffused by osmotic pressure into the tissues and cells that need them. It is also the main medium for transporting excretory products to the kidneys and lungs for elimination.

Disorders and Diseases

The most characteristic disease associated with plasma is hemophilia. It results from an inherited change in one of the clotting proteins (factor VIII), leaving it dysfunctional. This single change disrupts the chemical reactions necessary for clotting. As a result, patients with hemophilia experience bleeding, swelling, and bruising. Crippling defects may include recurrent hemorrhaging into joints and muscles and bleeding into body cavities.

Tests of the clotting function of plasma include analysis of indicators such as the prothrombin time and the partial thromboplastin time. These tests identify a deficiency of any of the clotting factors. Most cases involving abnormal bleeding can then be traced to specific defects. Hemophilia can be controlled by infusion of factor VIII that has been collected from donated blood or plasma.

Perspective and Prospects

The possibility of using blood plasma for transfusion purposes was reported in a medical journal by physician Gordon R. Ward in 1918. Due to the advantages that plasma has over whole blood with regard to shelf life and donor-recipient compatibility, the use of plasma for blood transfusions was advanced during the 1930s. During World War II, anatomist Charles Drew developed a modern, highly sterile system for processing, testing, and storing plasma in a blood bank. During the early twenty-first century, research suggests that exploring and measuring the plasma proteome (the proteins in plasma, of which there are known to be 289) can help track slow changes associated with disease, such as rheumatoid arthritis. The best therapeutic options and drugs available for treatment of the disease can then be implemented.

Bibliography

Berenson, James R. "Overview of Plasma Cell Disorders." Merck Manual Home Health Handbook, July 2008.

De la Rocha, Kelly, Igor Puzanov, and Brian Randall. "Plasmapheresis." Health Library, May 11, 2013.

"Hemophilia." MedlinePlus, June 26, 2013.

Schaller, Johann, et al. Human Blood Plasma Proteins: Structure and Function. New York: Wiley, 2008.

Trice, Linda. Charles Drew: Pioneer of Blood Plasma. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000.

Valverde, José Luis, ed. Blood, Plasma, and Plasma Proteins: A Unique Contribution to Modern Healthcare. Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2006. Pharmaceuticals Policy and Law 7.

Great poets like Edwin Arlington Robinson are purposeful in every word they pack in their short pieces. Look closely at the name of our central...

The poem "Miniver Cheevy" is generally accepted as semi-autobiographical about Edwin Arlington Robinson's own life.  Your question about the name, "Miniver Cheevy," took me to an interesting fact about Robinson's own name.  When he was born, his parents had wanted a girl so much that when the boy was born, they refused to name him for several months.  After a while, they held a lawn party and had a raffle to allow their friends and neighbors to name the baby.  The name "Edwin" was drawn from a hat by someone at the party, and Edwin Robinson finally had a name.  

To consider the meaning of the name, you must first understand the characterization that occurs in the poem.  This person, Miniver Cheevy, appears as someone who is out of touch with the time he lives in.  He is dissatisfied with the life he is living, he longs for things like romance and chivalry.  However, he is either powerless to do anything about his state or he simply chooses not to take any action.  Instead, in the penultimate stanza, we are told that he simply "thought, and thought, and thought, and thought, and thought about it."  He is a man of no action.  Finally, in the closing stanza, we learn that he succumbs to what he considers his "fate," and he takes to drinking as a way of consoling himself. 

So, now consider the name.  What thoughts come to mind at the sound of the name, "Miniver Cheevy"? 

"Mini" -- small, impotent, inactive

"Cheevy" -- sounds like "peevish," someone small, complaining, whining

Cheevy could also have a relationship to "cheval," the French word for horse, from which we get the modern word chivalry, which Miniver Cheevy longs for. 

I looked up a site on the meanings of names, and the word "miniver" is "a white fur worn originally by medieval nobles and used chiefly for robes of state."  The great irony here is that this is exactly what Miniver Cheevy would want, to be a medieval noble wearing a miniver.  But he doesn't get it.

What kingdom do mammals belong to?

Mammals are organisms who possess the distinctive features of warm blood, mammary glands, three inner ear bones, and hair or fur. Mammalia is a class of animals, and in order to fall into this class, an organism must meet all of these characteristics.

The class Mammalia falls under the phylum Chordata. Chordates, members of Chordata, all possess a bundle of dorsal nerves in addition to a few other distinctive characteristics. In mammals, this bundle of nerves is protected by the vertebrae that make up the spine.

Living organisms are even more generally classified into one of six Kingdoms of Life: Archaeabacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The kingdom Animalia is distinctive because all members of the "Animal Kingdom" are multicellular, motile organisms who must eat other organisms for energy. Mammals are members of the Animal Kingdom because they are all multicellular organisms who eat other organisms and are capable of movement at some point in their lives.

What was the role and status of women in Shakespeare's time?

During the Elizabethan period, women had very limited opportunities in life. Most girls grew up to be wives and mothers, and any woman who didn't was considered strange or immoral. During childhood, some wealthy girls might be educated by a private tutor, but it was not allowed for any woman to enter university or practice law or medicine. Some women might help with their family's business if they owned one by doing some cleaning or helping around the shop, and a woman who married a man who owned a business might essentially become a partner in running it. Even so, women were considered second to men in all but one respect—they could bear children. Women were considered too soft, volatile, and sickly to participate in any occupations outside the home. I'm sure some people were even of the opinion that if Queen Elizabeth had married, her husband would have been a better monarch than she. 

How does Orwell portray women in 1984?

While 1984 is primarily a male-dominated novel, Orwell's portrayal of women makes some important statements about gender and its role in society.

With the exception of Julia, Winston's girlfriend, the women of 1984 are depicted in traditional roles where they espouse traditional norms and values. At the beginning of Part One, Chapter Three, for example, the reader meets Winston's mother who Winston remembers "with his young sister in her arms." Later in the chapter, his mother is portrayed as the protector of her children during an air raid which Winston is reminded of. 

Similarly, the prole women who Winston observes in Part Two, Chapter Ten, is depicted in a traditional setting: she is hanging out some washing in a courtyard. Surrounded by the "cries of the children in the street," Orwell, once again, reinforces the traditional role of women as mothers.

Though she is not a mother, the character of Katharine, Winston's estranged wife, reinforces Orwell's emphasis on traditional and domestic models of femininity. The first memory of Katharine, for instance, comes to Winston in Part One, Chapter Six, while he is standing in the kitchen, the 'traditional' bastion of women. Katharine's characterisation is also reminiscent of domestic female values: she is submissive, readily accepts party propaganda and is consumed by the desire to have a child and become a mother. Orwell's strong association between his female characters and motherhood is, thus, suggestive of his view on what constitutes a socially-acceptable role for women.

In contrast, however, is the character of Julia. She is a confident, rebellious and sexual woman who is complete opposite to all the other female characters in 1984. She represents a more modern view of femininity and openly rejects society's views on women and sexuality. In Part Two, Chapter Two, for example, Winston and Julia meet in the woods to avoid detection by the party. There, Julia confesses that she has had sex "hundreds of times" with other party members, despite being an active member of the Junior Anti-Sex League. 

Orwell, therefore, presents women in extremes of character. On one side, they are submissive mothers and, on the other, highly-sexualised rebels. This is, perhaps, more indicative of Orwell's own experiences with women than a true representation of femininity at the time of writing.  

The Misfit, in Flannery O'Connor's "A Good Man is Hard to Find," tells the grandmother, “I call myself the Misfit, because I can't make what all...

The Misfit is a character of surprising depth. He is first introduced to the readers as a vague fear, one that represents the possibility of violence in the world. Then, at his first appearance, he seems nothing more than a ruthless killer. However, as he talks with the grandmother, he reveals that he sees himself as more than just a perpetrator of violence. He sees himself as a balancing force, not only for the wrongs that he believes were committed against him by the system, but also for what he believes to be the wrongs committed by Jesus and life.

As the Misfit himself explains, he took the name because he did not believe that he had been treated in a way that fit his actions:

I can't make what all I done wrong fit what all I gone through in punishment.

He also explains to the grandmother that Jesus had shown that everything was off balance when he had been punished for things he had not done. However, he later seems to indicate that Jesus himself also made things off balance:

"Jesus was the only One that ever raised the dead," The Misfit continued, "and He shouldn't have done it. He shown everything off balance. If He did what He said, then it's nothing for you to do but throw away everything and follow Him, and if He didn't, then it's nothing for you to do but enjoy the few minutes you got left the best way you can-by killing somebody or burning down his house or doing some other meanness to him. No pleasure but meanness," he said and his voice had become almost a snarl.

In his view on Jesus, as well as in his continued violent acts, we can see that the Misfit views himself, and the pleasure he takes from meanness, as a way to restore balance. He restores balance to life and death by killing others. It is a way for him to right the perceived wrong of Jesus raising the dead. At the same time, he is balancing out his personal history, making the things he has done wrong fit the punishment he has already received.

The Misfit’s quest to balance out the wrongs that he believes have been committed fits with what O’Connor has said about the character, namely that he is a prophet gone wrong. In this way, he represents the path of selfishness and pleasure that leads people away from the Christian sentiments that the grandmother exemplifies in the moments before the Misfit kills her.

In the end, we may see some redemption for the Misfit when he has the following exchange with one of his men:

"She would of been a good woman," The Misfit said, "if it had been somebody there to shoot her every minute of her life."

"Some fun!" Bobby Lee said.

"Shut up, Bobby Lee" The Misfit said. "It's no real pleasure in life."

This contradicts his earlier sentiment that the only pleasure in life is meanness. One way to interpret this is that he believes, with his killing of the grandmother, that he has achieved the balance he was seeking, both with respect to his own misdeeds and punishment and with respect to the metaphysical imbalance that he believes Jesus caused by raising the dead.

If you are given concave mirrors with focal length 10 cm, 15 cm and 20 cm, which one is most suitable for: 1) a shaving mirror 2) a dentist's...

The concave mirror with the shortest focal length (10 cm) is the most suitable for a dentist mirror, while the concave mirror with the longest focal length (20 cm) is the most suitable for a shaving mirror.

The concave mirror can produce various types of the images of objects, depending on the distance between the object and the mirror. The images could be real or virtual, diminished or magnified, upright or inverted. For the purposes of dental work and shaving, it would be helpful if the image was magnified and upright. This happens if the object is placed between the focal point of the mirror and the mirror itself. Please see the reference link for a detailed description of how the type and location of the image depends on the distance between the object and the mirror.

Therefore, for dental work, the focal length of the mirror should be a few centimeters only, in order to be able to place the mirror so that the object (teeth) is in between the focal point and the mirror. However, it would be difficult to be that close to the mirror while shaving, so a longer focal length - such as 20 cm - would be more suitable. 

What is stem cell transplantation? Can it help cancer patients?

Cancers treated: Hematological (blood) malignancies such as chronic leukemias, lymphomas, and myelomas; also cancers such as neuroblastoma and selected solid tumors

Why performed: High-dose chemotherapy is the best treatment for certain types of cancers. One of the major side effects of high-dose chemotherapy is the destruction of bone marrow stem cells. Stem cell transplants can help restore or replace these cells. Using stem cell transplants in cancer treatment makes it possible for patients to receive very high doses of chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy. In addition, immune factors in the transplanted cells may help destroy any cancer cells remaining in the bone marrow.

Patient preparation: Usually, patients remain at home until the time that the transplant is scheduled. During this time, the patient is often encouraged to build strength and maintain a healthy diet. An important part of patient preparation is researching insurance coverage in order to maximize care. If not nearby, the patient should make arrangements to stay closer to the hospital. It is also necessary to make arrangements for caregiving for up to four months. Caregiving will be needed for help with household chores, grocery shopping, food preparation, medications, central venous catheter care, monitoring of food and fluid intake, companionship, and transportation.

Steps of the procedure: Once donor stem cells become available, many tests and procedures are conducted to ensure that the patient is healthy enough to receive the transplant. A catheter, called a central line, is inserted intravenously in the chest area near the neck. The central line remains in place for duration of the treatment and will be used for the infusion of stem cells. The central line is also used to collect blood samples, administer chemotherapy, and provide blood transfusions and nutrition.

The next step in the procedure is called conditioning and occurs the week before the transplant. During conditioning, the patient undergoes chemotherapy and possibly radiation in order to destroy cancer cells and suppress the immune system to prevent the patient’s body from rejecting transplanted stem cells. Conditioning may be conducted in the hospital or on an outpatient basis. Even if it is conducted as an outpatient, hospitalization for side effects may be required. Numerous side effects may occur, including nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, hair loss, mouth sores or ulcers, infections, bleeding, infertility, sterility, premature menopause, anemia, fatigue, cataracts, organ failure, and secondary cancers. Medications may help reduce side effects.

After the patient is treated with high-dose anticancer drugs and/or radiation during the conditioning process, stem cells are introduced into the patient’s bloodstream intravenously. If the transplant is successful, then the stem cells will migrate into the patient’s bone marrow and begin producing healthy cells.

After the procedure: After entering the bloodstream, stem cells travel to the bone marrow, where they produce new white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. This process occurs within about two to four weeks and is known as engraftment. Until the new stem cells begin functioning, transplant recipients will be at risk for complications such as infections and bleeding. Complete recovery of immune function can take several months for autologous transplant recipients and up to two years for patients receiving allogeneic or syngeneic transplants. Doctors conduct various tests to confirm that cancer cells have been eliminated and new blood cells are being produced. Bone marrow aspiration, the removal of a small sample of bone marrow, may be conducted to determine whether the transplant is working. Some patients can leave the hospital within three to five weeks, but others may require longer hospitalization.

Risks: Stem cell transplants are associated with many risks and complications, some potentially fatal. Complications that can arise include stem cell failure, organ and blood vessel damage, cataracts, secondary cancers, and death. Other major risks associated with stem cell transplants are increased susceptibility to infection and bleeding. Stem cell transplant recipients may experience short-term side effects such as nausea, vomiting, fatigue, loss of appetite, mouth sores, hair loss, and skin reactions.

A very serious complication known as graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) may occur when immune cells from the donor attack the patient’s cells. Generally, the most commonly damaged organs in a GVHD response are the skin, liver, and intestines. GVHD is treated with steroids or other immunosuppressive agents.

Results: Stem cell transplants can extend the lives of transplant recipients and cause some cancers to go into remission. Many transplant recipients enjoy a good quality of life and are able to resume their normal activities. Side effects and transplant success vary among recipients, with some patients experiencing very few complications, while others experience numerous problems.

Antin, Joseph H., and Deborah Yolin Raley. Manual of Stem Cell and Bone Marrow Transplantation. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge UP, 2013. Print.

Cant, Andrew J., Angela Galloway, and Graham Jackson, eds. Practical Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. New York: Wiley, 2007. Print.

Ezzone, Susan A. Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation: A Manual for Nursing Practice. Pittsburgh: Oncology Nursing Soc., 2013. Print.

Knoepfler, Paul. Stem Cells: An Insider's Guide. Hackensack: World Scientific, 2013. Print.

Park, Alice. The Stem Cell Hope: How Stem Cell Medicine Can Change Our Lives. New York: Hudson Street, 2011. Print.

Stewart, Susan K. Bone Marrow and Blood Stem Cell Transplants: A Guide for Patients. Highland Park: BMT Newsletter, 2002. Print.

Stewart, Susan K. Bone Marrow Transplants: A Book of Basics for Patients. Highland Park: BMT Newsletter, 1995. Print.

Which of the following describes an achievement of the Babylonian empire? A. The creation and recording of a formal code of laws B. The...

A. The creation and recording of a formal code of laws

The earliest Mesopotamian law code was that of Uruinimgina (ca. 2350 BC). Others include those of Ur-namma (ca. 2112-2095 BC), Lipit-Ishtar (ca. 1943-1924 BC), and Hammurabi (ca. 1792-1750 BC). Thus there were law codes in Mesopotamia before the rise of the Babylonian empire, but the most famous of these, the code of Hammurabi, was Babylonian. 

B. The invention of the ideas of polytheism and monotheism

Polytheism existed in numerous societies before the founding of the Babylonian empire. The Babylonians were not monotheists. 

C. The decision to have all rulers elected by voters

Rulers or representatives are elected by voters in democracies and republics. The Babylonian empire was neither; instead it had kings who either inherited power or seized it in military coups. 

D. The development of a hunting-gathering culture

The neolithic agricultural revolution in Mesopotamia occurred in ca. 8,000 BC, long before the advent of the Babylonian empire. The Babylonians produced food by domesticating animals and cultivating crops, not by hunting and gathering. 

What are some of Anne Frank's frustrations?

In Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl, Anne Frank's frustrations come from her perception of others and their lack of foresight. Anne does not have a friend she can confide in and names her diary "Kitty" so that she can feel like she is sharing her concerns with her best friend. 

Anne does not feel as if she "fits in" with her own family, particularly her mother and sister, Margot. In her diary entry of Sunday, July 12, 1942, she complains that she feels herself "drifting further away" from them. Only her "adorable" father tries to understand her although he still sides with them, in Anne's opinion. The issues between Anne and her mother occupy Anne's thoughts repeatedly. Her mother's inability to see Anne's perspective is a constant reminder of their poor relationship to the point that Anne cannot even bring herself to think of her as "mother." Margot is also a constant irritation to Anne, "morning, noon and night," (Thursday, November 5, 1942).   

Anne is angry with herself for being unable to do better but she is also angry with her parents because they do not recognize their own "inadequecies" (November 7, 1942). The fact that Anne never gets encouragement from "someone who loves [her]" is also a source of disappointment to Anne. She is beginning to feel "deserted."

Anne admits that she is "an incorrigible chatterbox" as her teacher always told her, but she feels that she is unfairly singled out for talking by the "unbearable" Mrs. van Daan (September 21, 1942), and with everyone thinking that she is an "ignoramus," Anne feels that others have no right to disapprove of her. On September 28, Anne tells Kitty that she is tired of adults who criticize her when they cannot attend to their own "quarrels." 

Anne is very distressed at the news of people being transported away by the Gestapo and the treatment they receive. She feels powerless as there is nothing any of them can do. She also feels guilty that she sometimes feels "cheerful" but knows that a "Melancholy Annex" (September 1942) won't help anyone. 

In 1944, in a comment that Anne adds to a previous diary entry from 1942, Anne speaks of her "homesickness" which is always on her mind. After some time in the Annex, she has realized that some of her previous comments were inappropriate and immature and due, in part, to never having had anyone to talk to. She is now so desperate that she "selects" Peter (Thursday January 6, 1944) as someone she can talk to. Their relationship develops but it is very overwhelming. 

Due to being stuck in the Annex, no one ever has anything new to talk about and all that anyone can do is hope that things will eventually change. Anne has no idea how her diary will impact the world and give a face to the many children and adult victims. 

What is astigmatism?

Causes and Symptoms

The problem of astigmatism
is caused by a difference in the focal length of the eye for two perpendicular directions, which can occur if the eyeball becomes slightly deformed, like a grape being squeezed between two fingers. The curvature of the cornea (outer eye surface) would be flattened in one plane but remain more rounded in the other one. A deformed eye lens can also cause astigmatism.

During an eye examination, the optometrist tests for astigmatism by showing the patient a diagram of straight lines radiating outward from the center of the picture. A person with normal eyes will see all the lines in focus, but someone with astigmatism will see only one line sharply focused while the other ones are fuzzy. For example, if the horizontal line is perceived to be in focus, then the vertical line will be blurred while the lines in between will be partially out of focus. Each eye must be tested individually because the amount of astigmatism can differ.

Treatment and Therapy

To correct for astigmatism, the optometrist can add a cylindrical correction to the eyeglass prescription, which changes the focal length of the eye in only one plane. A cylindrical lens can be pictured to be thick in the middle and thin at the edges, like a slice cut off from the outside edge of a cylindrical object.

A typical prescription for a person who is farsighted and also has astigmatism might be “+2.0D + 0.5 cyl axis 90.” The “+2.0D” is the strength of a typical converging lens for a farsighted person, expressed in diopters. Diopters are equal to the inverse of the focal length, so 2.0 diopters equals a focal length of 0.5 meter, or 50 centimeters. The correction for astigmatism here specifies a cylindrical lens of +0.5 diopters situated at an angle of 90 degrees to the horizontal axis.

Astigmatism can be corrected with hard contact lenses because the lens makes contact with the cornea over a layer of tears. The tears fill the space between the lens and the misshapen eyeball, providing the extra focusing that is required.

Laser surgery

has become a highly successful procedure to correct for vision
problems, including astigmatism. The most common forms of refractive surgery for astigmatism are laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK), photorefractive keratectomy (PRK), and laser epithelial keratomileusis (LASEK). In laser surgery, a computer-controlled laser beam is used to reshape the inner cornea to restore horizontal and vertical symmetry for the eyeball.

Bibliography

A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia. "Astigmatism." MedlinePlus, September 3, 2012.

American Medical Association. American Medical Association Family Medical Guide. 4th rev. ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.

Cameron, John R., James G. Skofronick, and Roderick M. Grant. Medical Physics: Physics of the Body. Madison, Wis.: Medical Physics, 1992.

Haughton, Alison N., and Eric L. Berman. "Astigmatism." Health Library, September 1, 2011.

"ISRS Refractive Surgery: Procedures." International Society of Refractive Surgery, 2013.

McCall, Richard P. "Optics of the Eye." In Physics of the Human Body. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010.

Slade, Stephen G., Richard Baker, and Dorothy Brockman. The Complete Book of Laser Eye Surgery. Naperville, Ill.: Sourcebooks, 2002.