Monday, August 30, 2010

What is the concept of teen privacy?



Privacy is a difficult issue for both teenagers and their parents. On one hand, teens need privacy to mature and become independent people. But on the other hand, too much privacy can be harmful. Parents of teens should therefore strive to find a balance. This means that parents should respect their child’s space and possessions, while still regularly checking up on the teen.



One example of finding a balance is with suspected alcohol or drug use. If parents suspect such activities, they should not overreact and invade the teen’s privacy, such as by rummaging through his or her possessions. But parents should not avoid the situation either. An ongoing conversation between the parents and teen is a more effective approach.



Social media has changed the way teens deal with privacy. Because social networks are public, many teens have lost their privacy. Certain posts on Facebook, for example, could damage a teen’s standing with his or her peers. Furthermore, many parents join the same social networks as their children do as a way to spy on them. Social media is a way of life and may teach teens valuable lessons about responsibility and good behavior.




Overview

Privacy is important for teens because it allows them to develop independence. It also helps them to mature and build self-esteem. Parents who give their teens enough privacy display trust. This trust becomes increasingly important as teens desire to do more things independently. Parents who afford their children privacy also show that they respect their children’s space and possessions.


A good example is when parents let their teens maintain their own bedrooms, such as keeping the space clean. This shows teens that parents respect them and their privacy and also trust them with the responsibility. However, parents should still regularly check up on the teens and their rooms. Teens may in fact fail to properly look after their rooms. In this sense, parents should be careful not to give teen children too much privacy.


Another good way for parents to check up on their teen children is to ask questions. If a teen is going out somewhere, his or her parents should ask where the teen is going; with whom; and for how long. Asking questions such as these builds trust between parents and teens and also helps teens develop a sense of responsibility. However, teens may resent being asked too many questions. Parents should therefore find a balance, seeking information occasionally or whenever they believe a teen may be in danger.




Harmful Activities and Teen Privacy

Teen privacy is especially important when it comes to harmful activities, such as alcohol use and drug use. Parents who suspect such activities may overreact and invade a child’s privacy. For example, parents may secretly go through the teen’s personal possessions. This may lead to more defiant behavior from the teen. Other parents who suspect alcohol or drug use may refrain from taking any action. These parents may choose to avoid conflict, often because they fear a negative reaction from the teen for being questioned. Parents should therefore talk to teens about drugs and alcohol while still respecting the privacy boundary. This can be an ongoing conversation that lets teen know parents are concerned. Children whose parents teach them about the risks of drugs are about 50 percent less likely to use drugs.




Social Media and Teen Privacy

With the advent of social media, including Facebook and Twitter, privacy has diminished. Social networks generally have public forums and traceable activities. In fact, given Facebook’s privacy rules, anyone can see another user’s status updates, images, and videos, unless that user opts out. This makes teens susceptible to harmful online behavior. For example, posting a provocative photo on Facebook may stigmatize a teen because of the public nature of the social network.


Social media also allows parents to spy on their children. For example, many parents join Facebook to be able to see what their children post and with whom they communicate. In fact, a study by the Education Database Online revealed that the main reason for joining Facebook for about half of all parents on the social network was so they could spy on their children and their children's friends. The study also found that nearly all of these parents monitor their child’s profile on a daily basis. Parents typically check their child’s status updates, photos they post or are tagged in, and location check-ins. These monitoring activities may be detrimental to teens. Social media has become a way of life, and parents should not try to protect their teen children from that fact.


In the end, social media teaches many teens a lesson about online privacy and being responsible on the Internet. Many teens learn—perhaps through their mistakes—that social media is public, and some mistakes cannot be erased. Teens may come to realize the things they should not share on social networks and how not to behave.




Bibliography


Barker, Joanne. “Teen Privacy: When to Cross the Line.” WebMD. WebMD, LLC. Web. 2 Dec. 2014. <http://www.webmd.com/parenting/teen-abuse-cough-medicine-9/teen-privacy, http://www.webmd.com/parenting/teen-abuse-cough-medicine-9/teen-privacy?page=2, http://www.webmd.com/parenting/teen-abuse-cough-medicine-9/teen-privacy?page=3>



Blackwell, Rachel. “Invading Your Teen’s Privacy—Nosey or Caring?” Parentdish. AOL (UK). Web. 2 Dec. 2014. <http://www.parentdish.co.uk/teen/invading-your-teenagers-privacy-nosey-or-caring/>



Drexler, Peggy. “Why Teens Need Privacy Online.” Psychology Today. Sussex Publishers, LLC. 6 Dec. 2013. Web. 2 Dec. 2014. <http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/our-gender-ourselves/201312/why-teens-need-privacy-online>



Witmer, Denise. “How Much Privacy Does My Teen Need?” About Parenting. About.com. Web. 2 Dec. 2014. <http://parentingteens.about.com/od/familylife/f/teenprivacy1.htm>



Witmer, Denise. “Should Parents Check Up on Their Teen?” About Parenting. About.com. Web. 2 Dec. 2014. <http://parentingteens.about.com/od/familylife/f/teenprivacy5.htm>



Witmer, Denise. “Why Does My Teen Need Privacy?” About Parenting. About.com. Web. 2 Dec. 2014. <http://parentingteens.about.com/od/familylife/f/teenprivacy3.htm>

What is the author’s preferred writing style in The Chrysalids? What are the narration and use of dialogue like? Does he favor literal or...

There are quite a few questions being asked in your post.  I will answer the question about Wyndham's preferred writing style.  My answer will touch upon the other questions being asked.  


Generally, there are four recognized types of writing styles.  They are expository, descriptive, persuasive, and narrative.  Wyndham makes the most use of the narrative writing style.  That shouldn't be much of a surprise, because it is the narrative style that most authors use for novels.  


A key feature of the narrative writing style is that a person tells the story.  In The Chrysalids the story is told by David Strorm, and the story is told from the first person perspective.  The narrative writing style also makes use of multiple characters and dialogue between those characters.  Again, that is very true of The Chrysalids.  The character list is quite large, and the reader learns a lot about character's actions and decisions through the dialogue sequences.  For example:  



'Go on,' I told her impatiently.


She tried to move, and then called up,


'I can't. It hurts.'


I risked pushing off, anyway, and landed close beside her.


'What's the matter?' I asked.


Her face was screwed up. Tears stood in her eyes.


'My foot's stuck,' she said.



Much of the narration in the novel is similar to the above sequence.  Wyndham's narrative stays quite clipped and concrete throughout the novel.  There isn't much flowery, figurative language that is used.  Perhaps that is because the narrator is young and doesn't think like that yet.  Or perhaps it is because Wyndham knows that his audience is likely adolescents who want to read about actions more than they want to read about metaphors.  

What is the conclusion to "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows"?

Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows ends with a final battle at Hogwarts (not counting the epilogue, which I will discuss at the end, too). While Harry searches the school for the final horcrux (Rowena Ravenclaw's lost diadem), the teachers and other students work to defend the school from Voldemort and his Death Eaters. After the horcrux is destroyed on accident by Vincent Crabbe using Fiendfyre, a cursed fire that he had intended to destroy Harry and his friends, the scene changes to Voldemort's encampment.


Voldemort is angry because the Elder Wand, which was supposed to be the most powerful wand in existence, did not seem to be working. Guessing that this was because its previous master was still alive (Voldemort incorrectly assumed that Snape was the wand's master because he had killed Dumbledore, who was the wand's master before), Voldemort kills Snape. As Snape is dying, Harry shows up, and Snape gives Harry his memories; these memories indicate that Snape had been on the good side all along, that he had secretly loved Harry's mother, and that he had been serving as a double agent at the request of Dumbledore. Unfortunately, the memories also show Harry that he himself has to die in order to kill Voldemort.


Harry accepts this, and goes to Voldemort's encampment; he puts up no fight as Voldemort finally kills him. Harry wakes up in a strange place that resembles King's Cross Station (the train station where the Hogwarts Express is), and sees that Dumbledore, who was supposed to be dead, is there with him. Dumbledore explains that Harry was an unintended horcrux, created when Voldemort had tried and failed to kill him as an infant, but now that he had been killed by Voldemort's own curse, the horcrux was gone. Dumbledore then said that Harry had the option to return to life or "go on" where he was; Harry chooses to return to life.


Because he had sacrificed himself willingly, his death protected the people who remained to defend Hogwarts, so Voldemort could not kill them. Neville kills Nagini, the snake that was Voldemort's final horcrux, and the final skirmish ensues. Harry reveals that he is alive, and explains to Voldemort that the Elder Wand did not belong to him because it never belonged to Snape; in fact, it had changed its allegiance to Draco, who had disarmed Dumbledore before Snape killed him. This meant that the wand actually belonged to Harry because Harry had recently disarmed Draco. After a final (and ultimately useless) plea to Voldemort's humanity, Voldemort tries to kill Harry, but the spell rebounds because the wand will not harm its master, and Voldemort is killed for good. Harry then uses the Elder Wand to repair his original wand, which had been broken earlier on accident, and says that he intends to put the Elder Wand back in Dumbledore's tomb so that it can fall out of memory.


The epilogue takes place nineteen years later. We get to see the children of Harry and Ginny, and also of Ron and Hermione; we also get to see the son of Remus Lupin and Tonks, Teddy Lupin, and Bill Weasley and Fleur's daughter, Victoire. Albus worries aloud that the Sorting Hat will place him in Slytherin, and Harry assures him that Slytherin would not be a bad house to be in, but that the Sorting Hat took into account the person's wishes as well. It finally ends with, "The scar had not pained Harry for nineteen years. All was well."

Sunday, August 29, 2010

Why, according to Ponyboy, do people usually think that any trouble is the fault of the Greasers and not the Socs?

Here's something that Ponyboy tells us in Chapter 9:



"They [the Socs] looked like they were all cut from the same piece of cloth: clean shaven with semi-Beatle haircuts, wearing striped or checkered shirts with light red or tan-colored jackets or madras ski jackets. They could just as easily have been going to the movies as to a rumble. That's why people don't ever think to blame the Socs and are always ready to jump on us. We look hoody and they look decent. It could be just the other way around--- half of the hoods I know are pretty decent guys underneath all that grease, and from what I've heard, a lot of Socs are just cold-blooded mean--- but people usually go by looks."



What Ponyboy means is that the Socs wear nice clothes and they have normal, socially acceptable haircuts, so they look like they're boys who behave well. But then the Greasers dress differently and wear their hair differently, and then just because of how they look, other people assume that the Greasers are up to no good.


In other words, the Socs don't dress like punks, so people give them the benefit of the doubt; the Greasers do dress like punks, so people treat them as if they really are punks and blame them first for any trouble.


As you can see, the answer to this question leads you to one of the themes of the book: how unfair it is to judge others by how they appear.

Thursday, August 26, 2010

What is astaxanthin as a dietary supplement?


Overview

Astaxanthin, a substance in the carotenoid family, provides the pink color of
salmon and many other sea creatures. Like other carotenoids, astaxanthin is a
strong antioxidant. It has been advocated for treating or
preventing a number of health conditions, but none of these proposed uses is
supported by meaningful scientific evidence.





Requirements and Sources

Astaxanthin is not an essential nutrient. However, it is possible that increased intake of astaxanthin could provide health benefits.


Salmon is an excellent source of astaxanthin. A typical serving of Atlantic salmon provides approximately 1 milligram (mg) of astaxanthin, while a similar serving of Pacific salmon might provide 4 to 5 mg. Krill oil is another good food source of astaxanthin.


When consistently exposed to high levels of ultraviolet light, the alga Haematococcus pluvialis produces very large quantities of astaxanthin, presumably to protect itself from injury. Haematococcus raised in this way is used as a commercial source of astaxanthin.




Therapeutic Dosages

In studies, astaxanthin has been given in doses ranging from 4 to 16 mg daily. Some evidence suggests that astaxanthin is better absorbed when consumed in an oily base.




Therapeutic Uses

Many health claims for astaxanthin are based on its strength as an antioxidant.
However, scientific confidence in the medical benefits of antioxidants has waned;
study after study of antioxidants such as vitamin E and
beta-carotene have failed to find the hoped-for benefits.


Other proposed uses of astaxanthin have some marginal supporting evidence from double-blind studies. In one such study, thirty men with infertility were given either placebo or 16 mg of astaxanthin daily for three months. The results showed possible small benefits on laboratory measures of fertility.


Another study tested astaxanthin combined with the carotenoid lutein as a possible supplement for enhancing recovery from exercise. In this small trial, twenty bodybuilders were given either placebo or the carotenoid combination for three weeks. Participants then engaged in intense exercise. The results failed to show that the use of the astaxanthin and lutein combination reduced muscle soreness or signs of muscle injury.


Weak evidence additionally hints that astaxanthin might reduce blood pressure,
help prevent heart disease, lower cholesterol, protect the lens of the
eye against cataracts, protect the stomach against ulcers, and reduce
the risk of macular degeneration. However, for none of these uses (or
any other) can astaxanthin be remotely called a proven treatment. Also, two
studies failed to find astaxanthin significantly more effective than placebo for
treating stomach irritation in people with dyspepsia (nonspecific stomach
pain).




Safety Issues

As a widely consumed nutritional substance, astaxanthin is expected to have a low order of toxicity. In human studies, no serious adverse effects have been seen. Maximum safe doses in pregnant or nursing women, young children, or persons with severe liver or kidney disease have not been determined.




Bibliography


Bloomer, R. J., et al. “Astaxanthin Supplementation Does Not Attenuate Muscle Injury Following Eccentric Exercise in Resistance-Trained Men.” International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 15 (2005): 401-412.



Comhaire, F. H., et al. “Combined Conventional/Antioxidant ‘Astaxanthin’ Treatment for Male Infertility.” Asian Journal of Andrology 7 (2005): 257-262.



Higuera-Ciapara, I., L. Felix-Valenzuela, and F. M. Goycoolea. “Astaxanthin: A Review of Its Chemistry and Applications.” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 46 (2006): 185-196.



Kupcinskas, L., et al. “Efficacy of the Natural Antioxidant Astaxanthin in the Treatment of Functional Dyspepsia in Patients with or Without Helicobacter pylori Infection.” Phytomedicine 15 (2008): 391-399.



Spiller, G. A., and A. Dewell. “Safety of an Astaxanthin-Rich Haematococcus pluvialis Algal Extract.” Journal of Medicinal Food 6 (2003): 51-56.



Wu, T. H., et al. “Astaxanthin Protects Against Oxidative Stress and Calcium-Induced Porcine Lens Protein Degradation.” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 (2006): 2418-2423.

`((10),(4))` Find the binomial coefficient.

You need to evaluate the binomial coefficient, using the next formula, such that:


`((n),(k)) = (n!)/(k!(n-k)!)`


You need to replace 10 for n and 6 for k, such that:


`((10),(4)) = (10!)/(4!(10-4)!) )=> ((10),(4) )=  (10!)/(4!6!)`


Notice that `10! = 6!*7*8*9*10`


`((10),(4)) = (6!*7*8*9*10)/(6!4!)  =>  ((10),(4)) =(7*8*9*10)/(1*2*3*4) = 210`


Hence, evaluating the binomial coefficient yields `((10),(4)) = 210.`

Wednesday, August 25, 2010

Why was Prospero interested in listening to Ferdinand and Miranda talk in The Tempest?

Prospero listens to Miranda and Ferdinand so he can tell if they are falling in love.


Prospero was betrayed by his brother, Antonio, and Ferdinand’s father, Alonso.  They took his kingdom from him and stuck him on a boat.  He ended up on this island.  As fate would have it, Antonio and Alonso strayed into his path, and he used his magical powers and accomplices to shipwreck them on his island.


Ferdinand was separated from the rest of the ship, and Alonso thinks he is dead.  Prospero sees Ferdinand as the perfect opportunity to exact some revenge on Alonso by doing some matchmaking.  He hopes to make Ferdinand and Miranda fall in love.  He spies on them to make sure that it works. 


Prospero wants to make sure that Ferdinand has to work for Miranda. 



They are both in either's powers; but this swift business
I must uneasy make, lest too light winning
Make the prize light. (Act 1, Scene 2) 



In other words, if he doesn't work for her he may not value her.  Thus, Ferdinand has to do some chores in order to win Prospero’s trust.  Miranda has never seen any young men, and she is infatuated with him.  She sneaks over to him and talks to him.  Prospero is aware of everything, but they have no idea. 



FERDINAND


My mistress, dearest;
And I thus humble ever.


MIRANDA


My husband, then?


FERDINAND


Ay, with a heart as willing
As bondage e'er of freedom: here's my hand.


MIRANDA


And mine, with my heart in't; and now farewell
Till half an hour hence. (Act 3, Scene 1) 



After they leave, Prospero remarks that he is just as happy as the young couple at this development, but he is too busy to worry about it right now.  They do not know that he is calculating and surveilling their every move, and that it is by his design that they are matched.

Tuesday, August 24, 2010

What are the differences between the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles?

Water, carbon and nitrogen cycles, all three of them are global biogeochemical cycles and describe the cycling of these nutrients through the various spheres of the Earth. There are a number of differences between these cycles and some of them are listed here:


  • In the water cycle, water changes between its various phases (solid, liquid and gas), but always stays water. In the case of the carbon and nitrogen cycles, various chemical forms of carbon (carbon dioxide, carbonates, sugars, etc.) and nitrogen (ammonia, nitrite and nitrate) are cycled through regularly.

  • Life is required for the cycling of carbon and nitrogen. Nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria are critical to the nitrogen cycle. Similarly, plants and animals are necessary for the carbon cycle. The water cycle, on the other hand, can continue in the absence of life.

  • Evaporation is the only process for returning the water to atmosphere, while carbon can be returned back by combustion, chemical reactions, respiration, etc. Nitrogen can also get back to the atmosphere by denitrification and fossil fuel combustion.

  • Fossil fuels are not part of water cycle, unlike the carbon and nitrogen cycles.

Hope this helps.

What does Nick Allen say and do in Andrew Clements' Frindle?

In the opening chapter of Frindle, author Andrew Clements identifies Nick as the type of person who is not entirely a troublemaker, though he certainly does cause a lot of trouble. He has a tendency to cause trouble because he is a very creative person. As a creative person, he thinks outside of the box and does things contrary to the rest of society, which has a tendency to cause trouble. He particularly thinks creatively whenever he feels bored and wants to enliven his boring school days.

Nick began acting upon his creative ideas when, feeling bored of New Hampshire's February winter, he got the brainstorm to turn his third-grade classroom into a tropical island, complete with colorful paper flowers, raised thermostat temperatures, and even "ten cups of fine white sand [spread] all over the classroom floor" (p. 7). In the fourth grade, he enlivened the classroom experience by experimenting with squeaking the high-pitched chirp the red-winged blackbird uses to avoid danger by confusing hawks. Since hawks can't tell where the chirp is coming from, they get confused about where to look for the blackbird. Noticing that his fourth-grade teacher looks like a hawk, Nick decided to test the sound theory on his teacher and found she definitely could not tell who was making the chirp.

When it came time to find a way to make his fifth-grade language class more interesting, headed by a super strict teacher, he tries to hijack classroom time by asking where words come from only to be assigned to research the topic himself and give an oral report. Nick's question and oral report became fodder for his greatest creative idea of all--to challenge the authority of language rules by inventing his own word.

Does George Orwell appear to be a coward and a racist in his essay, "Shooting an Elephant"?

In his essay, “Shooting an Elephant,” George Orwell reveals a lot about himself. From what he tells the reader, he does seem to consider himself a coward for giving in to the crowd and shooting the escaped elephant. What is more difficult is determining whether his views about the Burmese are merely cowardly or also racist.


Orwell portrays himself as a critic of the British colonial government of Burma. As he tells us:



Theoretically – and secretly, of course – I was all for the Burmese and all against their oppressors, the British.



As such, he understands his place in the social hierarchy. Whether he agrees with the colonial government or not, he is an agent of that government, and the Burmese view him as such.


This understanding leads to his dilemma about shooting the escaped elephant. Orwell realizes that he has stepped into a position in which he cannot show fear or indecision. He is, in short, afraid of looking foolish. Because of this, he decides to shoot the elephant, even thought it was no longer on a rampage:



A white man mustn't be frightened in front of "natives"; and so, in general, he isn't frightened. The sole thought in my mind was that if anything went wrong those two thousand Burmans would see me pursued, caught, trampled on and reduced to a grinning corpse like that Indian up the hill. And if that happened it was quite probable that some of them would laugh. That would never do.



In this, we see the coward he knows himself to be. The fear of looking foolish overcomes his better sense, and he acts to escape his fear.


The above passage also illustrates the racial issue in the essay. Orwell believes British imperialism to be, in his words, "evil." Still, he sees himself, as a white man, to be separate, even above, the Burmese, whom he seems to consider an undifferentiated mass, one which he must appease. He may not possess the same racial views as the colonial government, but neither does he seem to think of the Burmese people as individuals like himself. When we combine this with his statement at the end that he is glad that the “coolie” was killed because it gave him the pretext for shooting the elephant, we see that even though he is an opponent of colonial imperialism, it does not appear that he is free from seeing local peoples as something less than he thinks himself to be.

Monday, August 23, 2010

What warning does the soothsayer give Caesar, and what is Caesar's response in Act 2, Scene 2?

The soothsayer warns Caesar to beware the Ides of March, and Caesar ignores the warning.


The soothsayer supposedly knew that Caesar was in danger around February, 44 B.C. and made it his mission to warn him.  In the play, Shakespeare has the soothsayer warn Caesar during the Feast of Lupercal.  He tells him specifically when he will be killed. 



Soothsayer


Beware the ides of March.


CAESAR


He is a dreamer; let us leave him: pass. (Act 1, Scene 2) 



Despite the specificity of the warning, Caesar ignores it.  In either arrogance or distraction, he dismisses the man as a dreamer and tells him to go away.  Caesar would have been well aware that he was a target for assassination.  After all, he had just defeated another Roman in a bloody civil war and was taking more and more power for himself as dictator of Rome.  


The soothsayer does not give up.  He tries again on the Ides of March.  Again, Caesar is not taking the warning seriously.  He makes what seems like a joke when he sees the soothsayer.  



CAESAR


[To the Soothsayer] The ides of March are come.


Soothsayer


Ay, Caesar; but not gone. (Act 3, Scene 1)



The soothsayer has a point.  Caesar is just about to go into the senate meeting where he will be assassinated.  Again, he does not take precautions.  He either feels that he is safe or does not care.  Shakespeare presents Caesar as supremely arrogant, ignoring the Cimber brothers' requests.


If Caesar had listened to the soothsayer, history might have turned out quite differently.  By the time Caesar faced his assassins, he had been warned by the soothsayer, Artemidorus, and his wife. He almost listened to his wife when she told him that, because of her dream, she did not want him to go but, unfortunately, he went there anyway.

Sunday, August 22, 2010

What is the relationship between mental illness and addiction?


Addiction and Other Mental Disorders

Addiction can occur with another mental disorder. Roughly one-half of drug abusers and alcoholics have one or more other mental illnesses. Moreover, of all persons diagnosed with a psychiatric disease, almost one-half have a substance abuse disorder. The substance is most commonly alcohol, followed by marijuana and cocaine. Other commonly abused substances are prescription drugs such as tranquilizers and sleeping pills.




In 2002, approximately four million adults in the United States met the criteria for both a serious mental disorder and substance dependence or abuse the year before. The incidence of abuse is higher among males and those age eighteen to forty-four years. Any of the disorders identified by the American Psychiatric Association’s
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-IV) can occur in conjunction with addiction. The dual diagnosis often includes depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder, and antisocial personality disorder.


An impressive body of medical literature documents specific comorbid associations. Subjects with mood or anxiety disorders are two to four times more likely to have a substance use disorder compared with normal subjects. The same is true for people with an antisocial syndrome, such as antisocial personality or conduct disorder. Almost one-half of persons with schizophrenia also have a lifetime history of substance use disorders—a much higher percentage than the one seen in unaffected persons. Cannabis use disorders are prevalent among schizophrenic dual-diagnosis patients, particularly among young adults. In some studies, the rate of smoking in persons with schizophrenia reached 90 percent. The percentage of smokers is also much higher in persons diagnosed with depression, PTSD, and panic disorder, than it is in normal age-matched controls. Methamphetamine use co-occurs with psychiatric manifestations, including depression, suicidal thoughts, and psychosis.


The comorbid associations, however, do not stop at substance use disorders. Studies show that adolescents with Internet addiction have more ADHD symptoms, depression, social phobia, and hostility. Comorbidity of pathological Internet use and psychiatric disorders also is seen in other age groups. Exercise addiction displays a high comorbidity and has many symptoms in common with eating disorders and body image disorders.


Establishing a cause-and-effect relationship for the association of addiction and psychiatric illnesses remains difficult, even when one of these disease categories is diagnosed first. The psychiatric diagnosis often does not happen until symptoms have progressed to a specified level, in accordance with DSM-IV guidelines. Meanwhile, mild symptoms may prompt drug use, and vague recollections of when drug abuse started can generate inaccurate assessments of what occurred first.


The relationship between addiction and other psychiatric disorders is bidirectional. Several mechanisms probably contribute, to different extents, to how specific comorbidities manifest themselves. Because of the substantial economic and psychosocial burden associated with dual diagnosis, identifying the cause of co-occurrence constitutes a public health priority.




Mental Disorders and Addiction

Physicians have long known that psychiatric symptoms such as insomnia, fatigue, depressed mood, and anxiety increase a person’s likelihood of using drugs. It appears the affected person attempts to self-medicate
with drugs, or to engage in other addictive behaviors, to obtain a pleasant feeling (via a neurotransmitter surge in the brain’s reward system). This eases the suffering caused by the underlying illness. Repeated administration of these “remedies” puts the stressed and anhedonic person at risk for addiction, especially when not under adequate medical care.


According to the American Psychiatric Association, persons with schizophrenia use substances such as marijuana to mitigate negative symptoms and some of the adverse effects of antipsychotic medication. Several self-medication mechanisms have been proposed to explain the strong association between schizophrenia and smoking, but none has been confirmed. The use of tobacco products by persons with schizophrenia could alleviate disease symptoms and improve cognition. In addition, smoking behavior also may help patients cope with the social stigma of their disease.


Multiple studies have demonstrated an increased risk for drug use disorders in young persons with untreated ADHD. Some researchers suggest that only ADHD-affected persons with coexisting conduct disorders are vulnerable. Treatment of childhood ADHD with methylphenidate and amphetamines, although efficient in reducing the characteristic manifestations, has generated concern regarding the child’s vulnerability to drug abuse later in life.


New types of addiction are making their way into the lives of psychiatric patients. A number of studies reported excessive online game-playing in persons with major depressive disorder. Depression, hostility, ADHD, and social phobia were found to predict the occurrence of Internet addiction in follow-up studies. Hostility and ADHD represented the most important predictors of Internet addiction in male and female adolescents, respectively.




Mental Disorders and Drugs of Abuse

Substances of abuse, and the expanding cycle of brain dysfunction they produce, can cause users to experience symptoms of mental illness in the absence of a previous psychiatric history. Ecstasy (MDMA) use, for example, causes long-term deficits in brain serotonin function, resulting in depression and anxiety. Psychosis occurs in stimulant abusers (for example, in the chronic phase of amphetamine use), apparently because of alterations in the dopamine system. Stimulants also cause anxiety, panic attacks, and sleep disorders.


Suicidal behavior is frequently observed among cocaine-dependent persons. Cocaine affects mood negatively, as indicated by the high frequency of dysphoria (unpleasant mood) in users. Brain imaging and postmortem studies conducted in these subjects show reductions in dopamine receptors and in dopamine release. Dopamine is a key molecule in reward and motivational circuits; therefore, these reductions could lead to loss of interest and depressed mood. In persons with predisposing factors, this effect elevates the risk for suicide.


Elucidating the long-term impact of early drug exposure is an important area of comorbidity research. Chronic drug abuse by teenagers represents a major concern because, at this formative stage, it has a negative impact on socialization and cognitive development and can contribute to the generation of mental disorders. The connection between early drug exposure and psychopathology is, however, a complex one, because of potential genetic and environmental influences. One study, for example, shows that frequent marijuana use in adolescence increases the risk of psychosis in adulthood, but only in subjects with a certain gene variant.




Overlapping Causes

Addiction and other psychiatric illnesses have overlapping causes that include genetic vulnerabilities, brain dysfunction, and early exposure to stress or trauma. Research is aimed at finding genes that favor the development of both addictive behavior and mental diseases, or increase the risk of comorbidity. Approximately one-half of a person’s vulnerability to addiction is caused by genetics, mainly through complex relationships between genes and interactions with environmental factors.


Several regions of the human genome have been linked to an elevated risk of both substance use disorders and mental illness. One prominent example is the existence of genetic factors associated with a higher vulnerability to teenage drug dependence and conduct disorders. Pathological gambling shares genetic vulnerability factors with antisocial behaviors, alcohol dependence, and major depression.


Pathological changes in certain brain areas and neurotransmitter systems underlie both substance use disorders and other mental illnesses. This led to the hypothesis that brain changes associated with one disease category may influence the other. Drug abuse may cause structural changes in the brain that render a person more prone to developing a psychiatric disorder. When a mental disorder develops first, it changes brain activity in a way that increases the propensity to abuse substances in an attempt to alleviate the unpleasant effects of the mental disorder or the medication used to treat it.


Dopaminergic and serotonergic dysfunctions lead to psychiatric disorders and increase the risk for addiction. Dopaminergic circuitry, for example, is altered both in addiction and in psychiatric disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia. The presence of these abnormalities may predispose a person to developing schizophrenia, increase the rewarding effects of substances like nicotine, and even diminish the person’s ability to quit smoking. The drug clozapine is used to treat schizophrenia and acts on nicotine receptors, among others. It improves attention and memory in animal models of schizophrenia, and it reduces smoking in persons with schizophrenia. This observation further underscores the existence of common disorder mechanisms.


Psychosocial stress participates in the initiation and maintenance of addictive disorders and other psychiatric diseases, including depression and PTSD. Evidence suggests that the limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which controls stress reactions, may be important in the development of depression and addictive disorders. Dopamine signaling has also been implicated in the way stress increases vulnerability to drug addiction. As stress is a risk factor for multiple mental disorders, these findings provide a possible link between the mechanisms underlying addiction and those of other psychiatric disorders.




Diagnosis and Treatment of Comorbidity

The strikingly high rate of addiction and psychiatric illness co-occurrence calls for a thorough evaluation of patients and prompt, concurrent treatment of these disorders. Patients presenting with mental illnesses should receive screening for addictions, and substance abusers should undergo a comprehensive psychiatric evaluation. This approach will help patients with dual diagnosis, in which symptoms may be more severe and difficult to manage than in patients with only one disorder.


Substance abuse in persons with schizophrenia, for example, is associated with poorer clinical outcomes and contributes significantly to their morbidity and mortality. Skilled assistance and careful observation will also distinguish between the symptoms of intoxication or withdrawal and the often similar manifestations of comorbid mental disorders.


Health providers should be aware that the rates of addiction relapse are higher in people with psychiatric comorbidities. Smokers with depression, for example, have a more difficult time quitting and require more attempts to quit than do smokers without depression.


Targeted and early treatment can significantly reduce the increased risk of persons with mood disorders resorting to drugs and can reduce the development of severe mental illnesses in persons with addictive behaviors. In the United States, the care for patients with comorbidity poses several problems. The health system employs distinct channels for treating psychiatric disorders and addiction. Health practitioners’ qualifications render each system better suited to dealing with one or the other of these disease categories. When faced with dual-diagnosis patients, substance-abuse treatment centers may be reluctant to use medications, even when needed to treat mental disorders. Some may not have employees qualified to prescribe and monitor medication. Consequently, when surveyed, patients with comorbidities report the lowest satisfaction with health care and the greatest prevalence of unmet need.


Patient population factors (such as social status, gender, and scope of insurance coverage) contribute to a deepening of the gap between the two closely related therapeutic fields. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, when suffering from both substance abuse and mental illness, women tend to seek help from mental health practitioners, whereas men prefer substance-abuse treatment channels. Epidemiological studies indicate that one-half of military veterans diagnosed with PTSD have a substance use disorder comorbidity, which creates a challenge for the health system. Urgent research efforts are needed to identify the best treatment strategies for addressing PTSD-substance abuse comorbidities and to explore possible distinct treatments for combat versus civilian PTSD.


A high percentage of detainees in prisons and jails have a psychiatric disorder associated with substance abuse or addiction. In these settings, comorbidity treatment avenues are insufficient and improvements have a great potential to enhance public health and safety.


Despite these difficulties, progress in screening and treatment of comorbidities has been made in many settings. Research efforts aim to identify the best pharmacologic treatments that reduce cravings, while alleviating associated mental disorders. One successful approach concerns patients who receive atypical antipsychotic agents, especially clozapine: They smoke less and have an easier time quitting. Psychosocial strategies that show promise in treating comorbidity include cognitive-behavioral therapy, therapeutic communities, assertive community treatment, and integrated group therapy.




Bibliography


Atkins, Charles. Co-Occurring Disorders: Integrated Assessment and Treatment of Substance Use and Mental Disorders. Eau Claire: PESI, 2014. Print.



Choi, Sam, Susie M. Adams, Siobhan A. Morse, and Sam MacMaster. "Gender Differences in Treatment Retention among Individuals with Co-Occurring Substance Abuse and Mental Health Disorders." Substance Use and Misuse 50.5 (2015): 653–63. Print.



Hesse, Morten. “Treating the Patient with Comorbidity.” Evidence-Based Addiction Treatment. Ed. Peter M. Miller. Burlington: Academic, 2009. Print.



Kranzler, Henry R., and Joyce A. Tinsley, eds. Dual Diagnosis and Psychiatric Treatment: Substance Abuse and Comorbid Disorders. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2004. Print.



Martin, Peter R. Substance Abuse in the Mentally and Physically Disabled. New York: Dekker, 2001. Print.



Mignon, Sylvia I. "Treatment of Co-Occurring Disorders (Dual Diagnosis)." Substance Abuse Treatment: Options, Challenges, and Effectiveness. New York: Springer, 2015. 139–56. Print.



Miller, Norman S., and Mark S. Gold, eds. Addictive Disorders in Medical Populations. Hoboken: Wiley, 2010. Print.



Thakkar, Vatsal G. Addiction. New York: Chelsea House, 2006. Print.



Volkow, Nora D. “Substance Use Disorders in Schizophrenia: Clinical Implications of Comorbidity.” Schizophrenia Bulletin 35 (2009): 469–72. Print.

In what products are beta particles and photon emitted?

Beta particles are simply electrons. Photons are packages of light. Therefore, any device that uses high energy electrons and emits light would be emitters of beta particles and photons.


Specifically, a cathode ray tube emits both beta particle and photons. A tritium fluorescent light is a specific example of a beta particle emitter.


Most electronic are emitters of beta particles and photons. Electronics use electricity.  The wires that stem from electronics are made of metals. The wires are made of metals because metals are good conductors of electricity. This means that the wires all the electrons to travel through them. Although the electrons that travel through most electronics are at much lower energies than beta particles, the electrons and beta particles are the same fundamental particle.



Since photons are packages of light, photon emitters are even more common than beta particle emitters. Essentially anything that emits light would be a photon emitter.

Friday, August 20, 2010

How are Horatio and Hamlet different?

Though Hamlet and Horatio are both scholars and friends who become very close over the course of the play, the two men are, as your question points out, markedly different. One particular area where this difference is most apparent is in each man's willingness to accept the supernatural. Specifically: Horatio is a skeptic and Hamlet is a believer.


Horatio's skepticism is one of the first things we learn about him. As Marcellus brings the reluctant Horatio along to meet with Barnardo and watch for the ghost, Marcellus says Horatio "will not let belief take hold of him." In fact, Horatio is so sure the ghost is a "fantasy" that he scolds the two men, saying, "Tush, tush, 'twill not appear." (I.i.23-30) 


Compare this reticence with Hamlet's response to hearing about the ghost of his father. Whereas Horatio had to be dragged out to watch for it, Hamlet is quick to say "I will watch tonight. Perchance 'twill walk again." (I.ii.242-3) Hamlet even goes on to talk about the possible portents of this ghost's appearance. 


Even after he's seen the ghost twice, Horatio is hesitant to accept what he has seen. As the ghost's voice encourages Hamlet's friends to swear to keep silent, Horatio cries out in disbelief, "but this is wondrous strange!" Hamlet, however, has no fear of the strange. He plays on the use of the word as he replies, "And therefore as a stranger give it welcome." Hamlet then goes on to paint the clearest difference between their two world-views: "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, then are dreamt of in your philosophy." (I.v.164-7) Horatio tends to believe only what is in his books; Hamlet is willing to accept a wider world. 


Horatio himself paints one last clear distinction between them at the very end of the play. As Hamlet is dying, the prince asks his friend to tell the truth of what has happened. Horatio responds that he won't go on living because he is "more an antique Roman than a Dane." In other words, though Hamlet has acted the part of the brave Dane in fighting for his vengeance, Horatio has more in common with Roman soldiers who were known to commit suicide and die beside their slain commanders.


Hamlet stops him from killing himself, however, and after Hamlet dies Horatio speaks uncharacteristically poetically about his friend and the events that have occurred. So perhaps a bit of Hamlet has rubbed off on the skeptical scholar. 

I'm looking for a book or long article on zaibatsu before, during and immediately following WW II. I'm trying to understand how they operated at...

Please see the links below for scholarly articles on the history of zaibatsu before, during, and after World War II. Another useful article is "Deciphering Keiretsu: A Study of Japanese Business Network" by Kohei Takahashi and Song Yang at the University of Arkansas (available online). The zaibatsu, as the authors of this article point out, were feudal in nature and used marriages and family relationships to maintain power. They generally created vertical monopolies, which means they had the ability to control each stage of production in an industrial process, and included a banking unit. The four major zaibatsu were Sumitomo, Mitsui, Mitsubishi, and Yasuda. The Sumitomo and Mitsui started in the Edo (1603-1868). Other new zaibatsu developed after the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. At the outbreak of World War II, the four major zaibatsu controlled 50% of the machinery production in Japan and 70% of the stock exchange. 


During World War II, the Japanese army nationalized a great deal of industrial production, and many other companies were destroyed in the war. After the war, the Allies under the General Headquarters (GHQ) decided to dissolve many of the zaibatsu in 1947. The GHQ's Anti-monopoly Law was intended to separate companies from their affiliated zaibatsu. However, this law was terminated when Allied occupation ended in 1952. The zaibatsu were never totally destroyed, as the United States decided they were useful to bolster Japan's industry as a defense against Communism. 

How can we identify if a chemical equation is exothermic or endothermic?

An exothermic reaction is one in which heat is released to the surroundings and hence can take place spontaneously. In comparison, an endothermic reaction is one which needs energy to take place and hence cannot take place spontaneously.


To determine if a given chemical equation represents an exothermic reaction or an endothermic reaction, we need to know the enthalpy of formation of products and reactants. Enthalpy is the total heat involved in the reaction. If the products have a lower enthalpy than the reactants, the change in enthalpy of the reaction would be less than zero (`DeltaH < 0`). Such a reaction, by convention, is termed an exothermic reaction and heat will be released when such reactions take place. In comparison, when the enthalpy of products is more than that of the reactants, the change in enthalpy associated with the reaction is greater than zero (`DeltaH > 0`) and the reaction is termed endothermic. 

Who was eligible to participate in the lottery in "The Lottery"?

Everyone in the town participates in the lottery, and those that are old or infirm have someone draw for them. 


The lottery is a village tradition.  It is such an important tradition that even though it is completely barbaric the townspeople see nothing wrong with it.  Whatever the original reason for the lottery was, it is clear that they keep participating because they always have done it this way, and this village changes nothing. 


Perhaps the most difficult to stomach is that even small children participate.  Take the case of little Davy, who is so young that he has to have help drawing his paper slip. 



Mr. Graves took the hand of the little boy, who came willingly with him up to the box. "Take a paper out of the box, Davy." Mr. Summers said. Davy put his hand into the box and laughed. "Take just one paper." Mr. Summers said. "Harry, you hold it for him." Mr. Graves took the child's hand and removed the folded paper from the tight fist and held it while little Dave stood next to him and looked up at him wonderingly. 



One man, Old Man Warner, comments that this is his seventy-seventh time participating.  Apparently, neither the very old nor the very young are immune.  The only way you get out of being actually present at the lottery is if you can’t physically go, such as Clyde Dunbar’s broken leg.  In that case, his wife drew for him. 


Everyone also participates in the stoning itself.  Before the lottery the little boys gather rocks.  When Tessie Hutchinson is chosen, someone even gives little tiny Davy Hutchinson a few pebbles so that he can help stone his own mother to death.


Jackson makes it very clear that no on escapes the lottery.  Children, the elderly, and even people who are sick or injured all participate.  Individuals draw for families, making the process seem even more demented.

How is isolation shown in The Great Gatsby through Gatsby?

In Nick's first glimpse of Gatsby, before Nick even knows who he is, Gatsby is pictured standing alone "regarding the silver pepper of the stars," his hand reaching out toward to green light in the distance that we will learn represents his desire for Daisy:



... he stretched out his arms in a curious way, and  ... I could have sworn he was trembling.



Gatsby is aloof at this parties: he doesn't drink and he doesn't join the fun. 



He stood alone on the marble steps ... looking from one group to another ... .



But his isolation comes out more sharply after he ends his parties, and even more so as he waits in vain for Daisy to call the night that Myrtle is run over. Gatsby's giant home is dark, dusty and musty that evening, and Nick falls with "a splash on the keys of a ghostly piano."


After Gatsby is shot and dies, we feel the poignancy of his isolation; despite hundreds of people having come to his parties weekend after weekend, only Nick, Owl Eyes and Gatsby's father arrive for his funeral, along with some servants. Nick hears nothing from Daisy. She "hadn't sent a message or a flower," despite the fact that Gatsby did everything for love of her. As Owl Eyes says at the end of the funeral: "'The poor son of a bitch.'"


Gatsby seeks love and connection through an idealized relationship with Daisy that will erase the past five years and make him feel young and whole again. But in reality, the relationship is empty, and he is alone. 

Thursday, August 19, 2010

What is energy medicine?


Overview

The notion of energy medicine is an ancient one, growing out of such concepts
as the traditional Chinese medicine principle qi
(or chi), the life force that motivates the universe and informs
all beings, and related to such modalities as acupuncture,
organized around the body’s electromagnetic meridians. The term “energy medicine”
is, however, of recent coinage. Apparently, it had first been used as a term of
art in conjunction with a 1987 conference in Madras, India, sponsored by the John
E. Fetzer Foundation of Kalamazoo, Michigan, dedicated to promoting
mind/body
medicine. Two years later, drawing on work on
psychophysiological self-regulation (also known as biofeedback)
demonstrated at the Menninger Foundation in Topeka, Kansas, researchers T. M.
Srinivasan, Elmer Green, and Carol Schneider founded the International Society for
the Study of Subtle Energy and Energy Medicine (ISSSEEM), now based in Arvada,
Colorado.




ISSSEEM, with its mission to improve human health and welfare, differentiates
between therapeutic energy medicine involving tangible forces such as
electromagnetic fields, acoustics, and gravity, and traditional subtle energies
such as qi, Prana (breath of life), and homeopathic resonance,
all of which operate at the level of the subtle or etheric body and are difficult
to measure. The National Institutes of Health’s (NIH) National Center for
Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), which
recognizes energy medicine as one of five domains of complementary and alternative
medicine, similarly distinguishes between “veritable” energy fields, which can be
measured for diagnosis and treatment, and “putative” energy fields (also called
biofields), which resist measurement by reproducible methods. NCCAM cites
magnet
therapy and light therapy as examples of the former
and qigong and healing touch as examples of the latter.


A survey by the National Center for Health Statistics indicates that
approximately 1 percent of Americans have used energy medicine techniques. It is
worth noting, however, that almost one-half of all Americans use some form of
alternative medicine in a given year. As energy medicine advocates emphasize,
there is considerable overlap between energy medicine and NCCAM’s other four
domains: whole medical systems, such as homeopathy and naturopathy;
mind/body medicine, such as biofeedback and meditation; biological practices
involving substances such as herbs and nutraceuticals; and manipulative,
body-based practices such as massage and chiropractic.




Theory and Practice

Energy medicine as it is understood today addresses both electromagnetic energy and more subtle energies, which together make up the body’s dynamic infrastructure. Physical and mental health depend upon keeping these various energies balanced and free flowing. These energies may become blocked by environmental interference from such things as toxins and electromagnetic pollution, and by internal factors such as prolonged physical or mental stress. Flow, balance, and harmony can be reestablished by manipulating specific energy points on the skin with exercises involving tapping, massaging, pinching, or twisting, or by manually tracing energy pathways over the skin. Alternatively, one can, as in certain types of yoga exercises, assume postures designed to affect the body’s energies in specific ways. In addition, mental focusing exercises akin to meditation can help to realign both tangible and subtle energy.


Western medicine has long recognized and made use of the body’s oscillating
magnetic fields, developing sophisticated technology such as magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) scanners and bone healing electronic
stimulators to help diagnose and treat physical disorders. Acupuncture, long
considered a type of quackery, is now widely accepted as an effective, if still
somewhat misunderstood, method for addressing pain. It is not terribly difficult,
even for skeptics, to make the connection between such machines and
modalities.


Acceptance of the existence of biofields, and, especially, the ability to intentionally influence them, remains profoundly controversial. However, the discovery of peptides and opiate receptors in the human brain, the molecules of emotion, has cleared the way for a burgeoning new field of inquiry: energy psychology. Considered a derivative of energy medicine, energy psychology is rooted in an assumption that mental disorders are related to disruptions in the body’s energy fields. Energy psychology consists of a set of physical and cognitive procedures designed to influence emotion, cognition, and behavior.


Positive reactions to energy medicine treatment can be difficult to quantify or
verify and have often been attributed to the placebo
effect or to cognitive dissonance. Positive research
outcomes have been similarly discounted as resulting from practitioner or
publication bias. Also, energy medicine, like any medical field (particularly any
alternative medicine modality), is fraught with fraud. In 2008, the
U.S. Food and
Drug Administration banned two devices purporting to heal
with the use of energy medicine: the EPFX and the PAP-IMI.




Bibliography


Eden, Donna, and David Feinstein. Energy Medicine. New York: Tarcher, 1999. Eden, an energy medicine practitioner, and Feinstein, a psychologist, provide a comprehensive self-help guide to treating physical and emotional maladies.



International Society for the Study of Subtle Energy and Energy Medicine. http://www.issseem.org. Aims to promote energy medicine through research, publications, and conferences.



National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/whatiscam. An overview of NCCAM’s definition of “alternative and complementary medicine,” including energy medicine.



Oschman, James L. Energy Medicine: The Scientific Basis. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 2000. This book presents scientific research supporting and explaining the concept of and various practices employed in energy medicine.



Pert, Candace B. Molecules of Emotion: The Science Behind Mind-Body Medicine. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999. Pert’s book describes her role in the discovery of the brain’s opiate receptors and provides scientific support for mind/body medicine by linking molecules with the psyche.

Wednesday, August 18, 2010

About how many stars are there in the universe?

This is a tough question, since we do not know the precise number of stars in the universe. If we were to simply look up at night sky, we can see an extremely large number of stars. We can use a telescope to increase the distance at which we can observe a star. Still, there are so many more stars we cannot see, which means we have to make certain approximations to answer this question. 


Our own galaxy, the Milky Way, contains about 100 billion stars. If we imagine that galaxies are spread throughout the universe uniformly, we come at an estimate of about 10 billion galaxies. Multiplying those two numbers, we get an estimate of about 1000 billion billion stars or `10^21`  stars. 


Note that this estimate only includes the stars in the observable universe. Since we estimate the age of universe to be around 13.7 billion years, we cannot see any stars or galaxies that are beyond 13.7 billion light years away.


Hope this helps.

Write and balance the equation for this organic reaction: propene with water.

Propene reacts with water in the presence of a dilute, strong acid to produce propanol. The dilute, strong acid does not take place in the reaction itself.


`~C_3H_6 + ~H_2O harr~C_3H_7OH`


The reaction is already balanced. 


Propene is an alkene. Alkenes are hydrocarbons which contain double bonds. 


The addition of a water molecule to another molecule is called an hydration reaction. The hydration of an alkene is an example of an addition reaction. An addition reaction is an organic reaction in which two molecules combine to form a larger molecule.


In an addition reaction, an alkene is converted to an alcohol by the addition of a water molecule. An alcohol is an organic compound with one or more hydroxyl groups (OH) attached. In the reverse reaction, the alcohol is dehydrated to form an alkene.

What is the comic situation and comic character in A Midsummer Night's Dream?

The comic situation is the craftsmen preparing a play for the wedding, and the comic character is Bottom. 


A comic situation is a story line that is intended to provide comic relief or humor.  While this play is not particularly dark, the craftsmen’s storyline is definitely intended for humor.  Specifically, the character Bottom is the butt of all of the jokes, and has the audience laughing pretty much every time he is on stage. 


The craftsmen, or mechanicals, have decided to get together to perform a play for Theseus and Hippolyta’s upcoming wedding.  None of them are professional actors.  They know that if their play is not well-received, they could be severely punished.  The play they have chosen is also a love story, Pyramus and Thisbe


Pyramus and Thisbe is a very odd selection for a wedding.  It is a tragic, Romeo and Juliet sort of love story.  Two young people fall in love, but are kept apart by their families and only communicate (and kiss) through a wall.  Pyramus finds Thisbe’s bloody cloak and thinks she is dead.  He kills himself, then Thisbe finds him and kills herself.  It is rather dark and depressing.  However, in the craftsmen’s inept hands, it becomes unintentionally hilarious. 


First of all, Bottom thinks he is the best actor that ever was and wants to play every part.  He is actually a weaver.  He gives their leader, Quince, all kinds of trouble. 



BOTTOM


An I may hide my face, let me play Thisby too, I'll
speak in a monstrous little voice. 'Thisne,
Thisne;' 'Ah, Pyramus, lover dear! thy Thisby dear,
and lady dear!'


QUINCE


No, no; you must play Pyramus: and, Flute, you Thisby.  (Act 1, Scene 2) 



The craftsmen go to rehearse in the woods, so that they can practice in secret.  Unfortunately, they have no idea that the woods are the domain of the fairies.  Puck is annoyed that they are so close to Titania’s home, and he decides to have some fun with them.  He replaces Bottom’s head with that of an ass (a donkey), and terrifies all of the other mechanicals. 


The fun with Bottom doesn’t end there.  Puck also uses the love potion to anoint Titania’s eyes so that she falls in love with Bottom.  Bottom enjoys the attention and just goes along with it.  He doesn’t seem to find anything too odd about being kidnapped and waited on by a group of fairies. 


During the actual play, things get ever funnier.  The prologue gives a meandering version of the entire plot.  The audience shows no respect at all, talking during the entire production.  They comment and make fun of all the actors, who do their best but are hopelessly inept.  The audience finds it particularly amusing that the wall talks.



THESEUS


Would you desire lime and hair to speak better?


DEMETRIUS


It is the wittiest partition that ever I heard
discourse, my lord. (Act 5, Scene 1) 



In the end, despite how terrible the play was the craftsmen are commended because everyone had a good time.  At this point the lovers have been properly paired, Titania and Oberon are back together, and Theseus and Hippolyta are married.  Everyone is happy!


Shakespeare uses the craftsmen and the play within a play to give the audience an additional commentary on love.  Despite the humor, the story is tragic.  It is a reminder that when people are in love, they will do anything to be together.  Not every love story can have a happy ending.

Tuesday, August 17, 2010

What order do these things go in? Journeyman, Apprentice, Master

The correct order would be the following: apprentice, journeyman, master. This sequence of gaining recognition for mastery in a craft began in the Middle Ages, under the control of guilds. Guilds were associations of people who were bound together not by blood or kinship ties but by shared expertise, such as in woodworking, goldsmithing or glassmaking. Guilds were powerful entities and often shared certain secrets of their craft only with their members.


An individual, usually a male, would begin as an apprentice. This meant being bound to a master, usually living in his home for seven years to learn his craft. In return, the apprentice would provide the master with free labor. After passing the apprenticeship stage, the individual would become a journeyman. This usually meant living independently and working for a wage. To become a master, a journeyman was generally expected to submit a work of high quality to the guild for evaluation. If the work was deemed worthy, the journeyman would become a master. 

What are some important scenes from Speak about which to write a paragraph?

The opening scene and the scene in which Melinda confronts Andy would be two moments in Speak that can be explored through written analysis.


In the book's opening scene, Melinda challenges the traditional depiction of high school life.  She shows a very harsh reality to  Merryweather High School. Melinda talks about social alienation, a conflicted view of self, and a world where there is little in way of empathy.  The opening scene of Anderson's book can be analyzed on many different levels.  In terms of narrative point of view, Melinda's voice guides the reader.  The opening sentence gives much insight into her narrative voice.  "It is my first morning of high school. I have seven new note- books, a skirt I hate, and a stomachache."  When she deconstructs the hypocrisy of high school with lines such as "Better the Devil you know than the Trojan you don't," it is clear that Melinda is able to parse through the inauthentic community that defines the high school environment.  Finally, the opening scene of the novel presents a social arrangement defined by exclusive cliques:



We fall into clans: Jocks, Country Clubbers, Idiot Savants, Cheerleaders, Human Waste, Eurotrash, Future Fascists of America, Big Hair Chix, the Marthas, Suffering Artists, Thespians, Goths, Shredders. I am clanless...


I am Outcast. 



The fierce social division that Melinda defines as "clans" repudiates the belief that high school is diverse and welcoming.  The opening scene can be analyzed on literary and social levels in its honest portrayal of high school.


Another powerful scene in Speak is when Melinda confronts Andy Evans. When Melinda is face to face with her rapist, the novel's emotional tension reaches its maximum point.  At this moment, all of Melinda's growth and evolution throughout her freshman year faces its ultimate test.  There is a directness in language that Anderson uses to capture the pain of this moment.  Andy is villainous in how he corners Melinda and in the way he threatens her.  The scene is particularly effective in Melinda's perception.   An example of this is how she describes the way "Maya Angelou looks at me. She tells me to make some noise. I open my mouth and take a deep breath."  The details of the confrontation are also a part of Melinda's voice when she describes the wetness of "IT's" lips and how his teeth are against her cheekbone.  When she raises her voice and learns to "speak," it is the most important moment of the novel.  Analyzing this particular scene can display how Melinda has become like the trees she draws.  She has grown, and writing about this scene could explore it in great detail.

Monday, August 16, 2010

What were the effects of the Second World War on Italy?

Shortly before the end of World War II, Benito was caught and shot to death by communists.  With no leader at the end of the war, the Italian people were divided about the direction of their country's government.  Some Italians wanted a republic, and others wanted a socialist or communist government.  More than half of the Italians wanted the monarchy abolished.  The Italians wanted to create a Constitution.  They held elections for an assembly, whose goal would be to create that document.  The three main political parties at that time were the Socialist Party, the Christian Socialist Party, and the Communist Party.  The Constitution was created and a formal government was established.


Despite the progress made in the Italian government, much of Italy lay in ruins.  There had been an incredible amount of destruction during the war.  Rome, Naples, and many other Italian cities were bombed, causing widespread damage.  Both Italians and non Italians had been concerned about possible damage to historically significant structures.  Despite this, bombings continued. 


The Italian economy had suffered greatly during the war years.  Many Italians were left in poverty by the time the war ended.  In the 1950s, however, the Italian economy made an amazing recovery.  The lives of most Italians improved over this time, and their economy grew.

What is the “Golden Gift of Grey” in the story and who gives Jesse this gift? What does it mean to Jesse?

The most direct answer to this question is that Everett Caudell gives Jesse a proposal to not do what his parents tell him to do, (return gambling money he got from winning games of pool), in a way that releases Jesse from the guilt he feels about disappointing his parents.


What seems a simple choice on the surface actually has much deeper meaning to Jesse and is experienced as a problem that goes to the very heart of his character and his relationship with his parents. It is a coming-of-age moral dilemma that every one of us is faced with in adolescence: the internalized expectations of his parents vs. his own personal ambitions. 


Jesse’s parents have a very black and white view of morality that has shaped Jesse’s conscience.  The author describes this metaphorically in the opening paragraph of the story when Jesse is watching the clock and feeling guilty for making choices he knows his parents disapprove of:


There they were, perfectly vertical, like a rigid arrow of accusation seeming to condemn by their very rigidity and righteousness everything in the world that was not so straight and stern as they themselves.” (p.59)


Jesse is a bright student who does very well in school but has parents who lacked education. He feels his parents do not understand him and that he does not understand them well either.  He has grown up with conflicting feelings of respect and shame for his parents and the label of “hillbilly” that the town has for his family.  He begins spending time in small local bar where he learns how to play pool by watching others play and practicing on his own.  Jesse knows his parents would not have allowed him to be there, so he keeps his activities a secret from his family for two years.  Then a day comes when Jesse decides to play games against the men for money and surprises himself by winning again and again.  He decides not to go home even though he knows this will cause a conflict with his parents.  As the night goes on, Jesse has a constant inner conversation where he imagines his parent’s disappointed reaction.  It makes him feel so guilty that he does not feel any joy in his accomplishment.  Before going home to face his parents, Jesse comes to the conclusion that he will give his winnings to his parents and this gives him great relief from the guilt he felt for his wrongdoing.


It would be the first worthwhile gift that he would give to those from whom he had always taken.  And he was filled with a great love for the strange people that were his parents.  Parents whom he found so difficult to understand… And he was ashamed now of the times he had been ashamed of them.”  (Pp. 73-74)


When he returns home, Jesse’s parents react how he expects by being upset and questioning his whereabouts.  However, when he offers them the money he is surprised that they refuse to take it and insist that he return the money because it was earned by gambling which is against their values.  Jesse obeys his parents by going to the house of Everett Caudell who helped him learn to play pool and was the first person Jesse had won money playing against.  Everett invites Jesse into his house and Jesse ends up confiding very emotionally to the older man about his conflict and then giving Everett the gambling money.  Before Jesse leaves, Everett stops him and the most significant point of the story happens:


Before he could move he saw the older man quickly and quietly tuck the three bills into the shirt pocket of his guest.” Now there, “he said, “there ain’t nothen wrong.  There’s no lie. You give it to me and I took it.  We’ll leave it be like that.”  (p. 78)


Everett shows Jesse the “grey area” in between the black and white definition of his parent’s code of morality.  At this point it really isn’t about Jesse keeping the money or not, it is about Jesse feeling redemption for his wrongdoing.  As the story ends it is clear a weight has been lifted from his shoulders and it is implied that he will now be focused on school and living according to his parent’s expectations.  The story is a perfect parable for the Catholic idea of confessing to a priest one’s wrongdoings to be released from the burden of sinning against God and then going forth with a clean slate to “sin no more.”  Or in psychology it could be an allegory for the id (the impulses and urges we feel a desire to act upon), the superego (the inner parent, morality, or conscience), and the ego (the mediator that can come to a rational compromise between the id and superego).

Sunday, August 15, 2010

What is the best way to gather quotes from a book in order to use them for an essay?

Without knowing which method that you are currently using to find quotes, I can't know if my method is "easier."  I can give a recommended method though.  I think a solid method for obtaining quotes is to find an online digital version of the book that you are reading.  Many books have a free PDF version online.  Once you have found that, then think of what theme you are going to be writing your essay on.  Let's say that you are reading To Kill a Mockingbird.  Then let's say that your essay is going to be about prejudice.  Part of your job is now to find quotes about prejudice within the actual text.  Press "ctrl" and "f" at the same time.  That opens up a search window in the top right corner.  Type a word that deals with your theme.  You could type in "prejudice," "race," "racism," "color," etc.  The search will find that word anywhere in the entire document.  You just have to scroll from word to word to find a quote that works for you.  

Saturday, August 14, 2010

When individuals spend time around people with bad habits, is there a chance the individuals will adopt those habits?

We are all influenced by the people around us, so it's important to nurture relationships that bring out our personal best. Of course, no one is perfect. Our closest friends will definitely have their share of bad habits.  


Generally speaking, people don't pick up bad habits from friends. Adults have their own set of bad habits and are unlikely to adopt negative behaviors on the influence of just one friend. In fact, the opposite is true. Friendship facilitates positive behavior change and can often help people transform their habits for the better. 


Friendship meets many crucial human needs, such as empathy, acceptance, reciprocity, and emotional bonding. When people are unable to get these needs met in normal ways, they sometimes engage in extremely negative behaviors or habits (addiction, for example). Not only does friendship help people break their moderately bad habits, it also protects people from falling into extremely unhealthy or destructive habit patterns.

Wednesday, August 11, 2010

What is Odysseus' reaction when Achilles tells him that it is better to be the slave of a poor man than to be king in the underworld?

Odysseus doesn't really have much of a reaction to Achilles's statement.  As soon as Achilles makes this claim -- that it is better to be living a really lowly and inconsequential life than to be very powerful among the dead -- he asks Odysseus to tell him about his son, and whether or not he's made a good leader, as well as his father, and whether he is still shown respect despite his very old age.  


Therefore, Odysseus does as he's asked and relates some stories about Achilles's son, Neoptolemus, and his heroism and bravery in the war in addition to how well-spoken and respected he is.  Of Achilles's father, Peleus, he has no knowledge, and so he cannot speak to how he's being treated.  After hearing the news of his son, then, Achilles departs back across the field of asphodel, leaving Odysseus to the other spirits.

Tuesday, August 10, 2010

What is fentanyl?


History of Use

Fentanyl was first synthesized in a medical drug research laboratory in Belgium in the late 1950s. The original formulation had an analgesic potency of about eighty times that of morphine. Fentanyl was introduced into medical practice in the 1960s as an intravenous anesthetic. Subsequently, two other fentanyl analogs were developed for medical applications: alfentanil, an ultrashort-acting analgesic (of 5–10 minutes), and sufentanil, an exceptionally potent analgesic (5–10 times more potent than fentanyl) for use in heart surgery. Fentanyls are used now for anesthesia and analgesia. The most widely used formulation is a transdermal patch for relief of chronic pain.




Illicit use of fentanyl first occurred within the medical community in the mid-1970s. Among anesthesiologists, anesthetists, nurses, and other workers in anesthesiology settings, fentanyl and sufentanyl are the two agents most frequently abused. Potential abusers have ready access to these agents in liquid formulations for injection and can divert small quantities with relative ease. Transdermal patches cannot be readily adapted for abuse. The fentanyl lozenge has been diverted to illegal use. On the street, the lozenge is known as perc-a-pop.


More than one dozen analogs of fentanyl have been produced clandestinely for illegal use outside the medical setting. Since the mid-2000s, fentanyl abuse has emerged as a serious public health problem. Fentanyl-laced heroin or cocaine powders have become the drugs of choice for some addicts.




Effects and Potential Risks

The biological effects of fentanyl are indistinguishable from those of heroin, with the exception that illicit fentanyl analogs may be hundreds of times more potent. Short-term effects of fentanyl abuse include mood changes, euphoria, dysphoria, and hallucinations. Anxiety, confusion, and depression also may occur. High doses or long-term use may impair or interrupt breathing due to respiratory depression. Unconsciousness and even death can occur.




Bibliography


Bryson, Ethan O., and Jeffrey H. Silverstein. “Addiction and Substance Abuse in Anesthesiology.” Anesthesiology 109 (2008): 905–17. Print. Print.



“Fentanyl.” National Institute on Drug Abuse. Natl. Insts. of Health, Dec. 2012. Web. 28 Oct. 2015.



Kuhn, Cynthia, Scott Swartwelder, and Wilkie Wilson. Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. Rev. 4th ed. New York: Norton, 2014. Print.



McCoy, Krisha. “Opioid Addiction.” Ed. Michael Woods. Health Library. EBSCO, Jan. 2014. Web. 27 Oct. 2015.



Savelli, Lou. Street Drugs: Pocketguide. Flushing: Looseleaf Law, 2008. Print.

Sunday, August 8, 2010

What properties of duralumin make it as strong as steel?

Duralumin is an alloy of aluminum with copper, with small amounts of magnesium and manganese. It contains about 4% copper, 0.5% - 1% magnesium and less than 1% manganese. The presence of copper provides it with strength. The alloy is also very lightweight and malleable. Due to these properties (light weight and high strength), it finds applications in aviation industry for manufacturing components of airplanes, especially by the military. The presence of copper makes it more susceptible to corrosion and it requires corrosion-resistant coating to protect itself. An easy anti-resistance coating is developed when duralumin is exposed to the environment, which results in the formation of a thin layer of aluminum oxide.    


Duralumin was discovered a long time ago and has been in use for almost a century now. 


Hope this helps. 

Saturday, August 7, 2010

What is cystic fibrosis?


Causes and Symptoms

Genetic diseases are inherited rather than caused by any specific injury or infectious agent. Thus, unlike many other types of diseases, genetic diseases range throughout a person’s lifetime and often begin to exert their debilitating effects prior to birth. Since in many cases the primary defect or underlying cause of the disease is unknown, treatment is difficult or impossible and is usually restricted to treating the symptoms of the disease.



In a genetic disease, a specific normal function is impaired because of a mutation in the individual’s genes. Genes are sequences of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contained on the chromosomes of an individual that are passed to the next generation via ova and sperm. Usually the primary result of a genetic disease is the inability to normally produce a certain enzyme, which is a type of protein that is used to speed up, or catalyze, the chemical reactions that are necessary for cells to function. If a genetic mutation does not allow the production of a necessary enzyme, then some element of metabolism will be missing from the affected individual. This lack of function leads to the symptoms associated with genetic diseases, such as the lack of insulin production in juvenile diabetes or the inability of the blood to clot in hemophilia. In the 1940s and 1950s, when the understanding of basic cellular metabolism made clear the relationship between mutant genes and lack of enzyme function, the modern definition of genetic disease came into routine medical use.


Cystic fibrosis (CF), one such genetic disease, has several major effects on an individual. These effects begin before birth, extend into early childhood, and become progressively more serious as the affected individual ages. Major symptoms include the blockage of several important internal ducts, which occurs because the cystic fibrosis mutation has a critical effect on the ability of certain internal tissues, called secretory epithelia, to transport normal amounts of salt and water across their surfaces. These epithelia are often found in the ducts that contribute to the digestive and reproductive systems.


The blockage of ducts resulting from the production and export of overly viscous secretions reduces the delivery of digestive enzymes from the pancreas to the intestine; thus, proteins in the intestine are only partly digested. Fat-emulsifying compounds, called bile salts, are often blocked on their way from the pancreas to the intestine as well, so the digestion of fats is often also incomplete. These two conditions may occur prior to birth. According to the Johns Hopkins Cystic Fibrosis Center, approximately 18 percent of newborns with cystic fibrosis have a puttylike plug of undigested material in their intestines called the meconium ileus (MI), which prevents the normal movement of food through the digestive system and can be very serious. All babies born with MI should be tested for cystic fibrosis, as approximately 98 percent of full-term infants with such a plug have the disease.


Because of their overall inefficiency of digestion, young children with cystic fibrosis can seem to be eating quite normally yet remain severely undernourished. They often produce bulky, foul-smelling stools as a result of the high proportion of undigested material. This symptom serves as an indicator of the progress of the disease, as such digestive problems often increase as the affected child ages.


As individuals with cystic fibrosis grow older, their respiratory problems increase because of the secretion of a thick mucus on the inner lining of the lungs. This viscous material traps white blood cells that release their contents when they rupture, which makes the mucus all the more thick and viscous. The affected individuals constantly cough in an attempt to remove this material. Of greater importance is that the mucus forms an ideal breeding ground for many types of pathogenic bacteria, and the affected individual suffers from continual respiratory infections. Male patients are almost always infertile as a result of the blockage of the ducts of the reproductive system, while female fertility is sometimes reduced as well.


Advances in treatments for cystic fibrosis have drastically improved an affected individual’s chances of survival and quality of life. In the 1950s, a child with cystic fibrosis usually lived only a year or two. Thus, cystic fibrosis was originally described as a children’s disease and was intensively studied only by pediatricians. Today, aggressive medical intervention has increased survival rates dramatically. Affected individuals are treated with a package of therapies designed to alleviate the most severe symptoms of the disease, and taken together, these therapies have allowed many patients with cystic fibrosis to live well into adulthood. It is difficult to calculate an average life expectancy for individuals with cystic fibrosis, as data from some regions is largely unavailable. In addition, life expectancy varies greatly depending on the age at which a patient was diagnosed, the extent of medical care available, and various environmental factors. Individuals with access to the necessary treatments may live into middle age.


The available treatments, however, do not constitute a cure for the disease. The major roadblock to developing a cure was that the primary genetic defect remained unknown. All that was clear until the mid-1980s was that many of the secretory epithelia had a problem transporting salt and water. By the late 1980s, the defect had been further narrowed down to a problem in the transport of chloride ions, one of the two constituents of ordinary salt and a critical chemical in many important cellular processes. Because individuals who had severe forms of cystic fibrosis could still live, however, this function was deemed important but not absolutely essential for survival. Furthermore, only certain tissues and organs in the body seemed to show abnormal functions in a cystic fibrosis patient, while other organs—the heart, brain, and nerves—seemed to function normally. Thus, the defect was not uniform.


The pattern of inheritance of cystic fibrosis was relatively easy to determine. The genetic defect that causes the disease is recessive. Humans, like most animals, have two copies of each gene: one that is inherited on a chromosome from the egg, and one inherited on a similar chromosome from the sperm. There is a gene in all humans that controls some normal cellular function related to the transport of chloride from the inside of a cell to the outside. If this function is missing or impaired, the individual shows the symptoms of cystic fibrosis.


A recessive trait is one that must be inherited from both the mother and the father in order to take effect. Inheriting only a single copy of the mutation from one parent does not have a deleterious effect, and such an individual would not demonstrate any of the disease symptoms. However, that person would be a carrier of the disease and could still pass the mutation on to his or her own children. Thus, genetic diseases caused by recessive mutations, such as cystic fibrosis, can remain hidden in a family for many generations. When two carriers of the disease procreate, their children may be born with the disease. The rules of genetics, as first described by Gregor Mendel in the nineteenth century, predict that in such a union, each child has a 25 percent chance of inheriting cystic fibrosis and a 50 percent chance of being an asymptomatic carrier of the disease like his or her parents.


The classic approach to studying any genetic phenomenon involves mapping the gene. First, it must be determined which of a human’s twenty-three chromosome pairs contains the DNA that makes up the gene. By studying the inheritance of the disease, along with other human traits, researchers located the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis on chromosome number 7. To localize the gene more precisely, however, modern molecular techniques had to be applied. Success came in 1989, when two independent groups, led by Lap-Chee Tsui of the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto and Francis Collins of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, announced that they had identified the location of the gene. The groups not only located the exact chromosomal location of the gene but also purified the gene from the vast amount of DNA in a human cell so that it could be studied in isolation. Then the structure of the normal form of the gene was compared to the DNA structure found in individuals with the disease.


DNA from more than thirty thousand individuals with cystic fibrosis was analyzed, and to the surprise of most, more than 230 differences between the normal and the mutated genes were found. While the same gene and gene product were affected in each case, the type and extent of the mutations varied widely in about 30 percent of the affected individuals, which accounts for the range in severity of symptoms. Since then, more than one thousand unique mutations in this single gene have been discovered to cause cystic fibrosis.


Tsui’s and Collins’s groups, as well as several others, tried to determine the normal function of the affected gene product. This protein, called cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and encoded by the CFTR gene, was found to create an ion channel that allows cells to move chloride ions across their membranes. In an individual with cystic fibrosis, this channel does not work properly, disturbing both the salt and the water balance of the affected cell, and ultimately of the whole tissue. The thick mucus buildup in the lungs is a direct consequence of this disturbance, as is the high salt concentration in the patient’s perspiration.


CFTR is an enormous protein, consisting of 1,480 amino acids linked end to end, and is embedded in the membranes of cells found in the lungs, pancreas, and reproductive tracts. The CFTR found in 70 percent of individuals with cystic fibrosis is identical to that produced by a non-mutated CFTR gene, with one exception: the amino acid at position 508 is missing. Thus, the extensive debilitating symptoms of this disease result from the mere omission of one amino acid from a long chain containing 1,479 identical ones. The other mutations that cause cystic fibrosis affect different parts of this protein; in all cases, they reduce the ability of the CFTR protein to carry out its normal function.




Treatment and Therapy

The treatment of cystic fibrosis typically focuses on preventing or delaying lung damage and optimizing growth and nutrition. Traditional treatments usually include daily dietary supplements that contain the digestive enzymes and bile salts that cannot pass through the blocked ducts. Individuals with cystic fibrosis are also placed on balanced diets to ensure proper nutrition despite their difficulties in digesting fats and proteins. One characteristic of cystic fibrosis treatment is the long daily ritual of backslapping, which is designed to help break up the thick mucus in the lungs; individuals may also use high-frequency chest-wall oscillation vests for the same purpose. Aggressive antibiotic therapy can keep infections of the lungs from forming or spreading. In the 1990s, a new therapy was introduced that uses a genetically engineered enzyme, deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I), to break down DNA in the lung mucus. Many white blood cells rupture while trapped in the thick mucus lining of the lungs, and the release of their DNA adds to the high viscosity of the mucus. DNase I, also called dornase alfa and sold under the trade name Pulmozyme, has been found to help degrade this extra DNA, thus making it easier for affected patients to cough out the mucus.


Therapies for cystic fibrosis, as for many genetic diseases, are largely limited to treating the symptoms. Since every cell in the affected individual lacks a particular metabolic function as a result of the disease, there is no easy way to replace these functions. For cystic fibrosis, this problem was exacerbated by the lack of understanding of the primary defect. The work of Tsui’s and Collins’s teams allowed a more direct assault on the actual defect. Gene therapy involves either replacing a defective gene with a normal one or inserting an additional copy or copies of the normal gene in the affected cells, in an attempt to restore the same functional enzymes and thus reestablish a normal metabolic process. In the case of cystic fibrosis, animal studies have shown that it is possible to produce normal lung function when either genes or genetically engineered viruses containing normal genes are sprayed into the lungs of affected animals. However, there is no similar direct route to the cells in the pancreas or the reproductive system, and an effective and efficient delivery vector for the non-mutated genes has yet to be discovered.




Perspective and Prospects

Patients with the symptoms of cystic fibrosis were first described in medical records dating back to the eighteenth century. The disease was initially called mucoviscidosis and later cystic fibrosis of the pancreas. It was not clear that these symptoms were related to a single specific disease, however, until the work of Dorothy Anderson of Columbia University in the late 1930s. Anderson studied a large number of cases of people who had died with similar lung and pancreas problems. She noticed that siblings were sometimes affected and thus suspected that the disease had a genetic cause. Anderson was responsible for naming the disease on the basis of the fibrous cysts on the pancreas that she often saw in autopsies performed on affected individuals.


Because treatment of cystic fibrosis is largely confined to managing the disease's symptoms, a premium has been placed on the development of inexpensive and accurate diagnostic procedures, which along with genetic counseling could greatly reduce the incidence of cystic fibrosis in the population. Yet because carriers experience no symptoms and often do not realize that they are indeed carrying the gene, conventional genetic counseling cannot easily reduce the incidence of the mutation in human populations at risk. Only the widespread use of a DNA-based diagnostic procedure could serve to identify large populations of carriers, and due to the relatively low chance of even a child of two carriers developing the disease, counseling would be fraught with severe ethical problems.




Bibliography


Allen, Julian L., Howard B. Panitch, and Ronald C. Rubenstein, eds. Cystic Fibrosis. New York: Informa, 2010. Print. Lung Biology in Health and Disease 242.



Carson-DeWitt, Rosalyn. "Cystic Fibrosis (CF)." Rev. Rimas Lukas. Health Library. EBSCO, 7 May 2014. Web. 17 Sept. 2014.



"Cystic Fibrosis." Updated by Neil K. Kaneshiro. Rev. David Zieve and Isla Ogilvie. MedlinePlus. Natl. Lib. of Medicine, 14 May 2014. Web. 17 Sept. 2014.




Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, n.d. Web. 17 Sept. 2014.




Johns Hopkins Cystic Fibrosis Center. Johns Hopkins Cystic Fibrosis Center, 2014. Web. 17 Sept. 2014.



Kepron, Wayne. Cystic Fibrosis: Everything You Need to Know. Buffalo: Firefly, 2004. Print.



"Neonatal Cystic Fibrosis Screening Test." Updated by Neil K. Kaneshiro. Rev. David Zieve and Isla Ogilvie. MedlinePlus. Natl. Lib. of Medicine, 14 May 2014. Web. 17 Sept. 2014.



Orenstein, David M., Jonathan E. Spahr, and Daniel J. Weiner. Cystic Fibrosis: A Guide for Patient and Family. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 2012. Print.



Parker, James N., and Philip M. Parker, eds. The Official Parent’s Sourcebook on Cystic Fibrosis: A Revised and Updated Directory for the Internet Age. San Diego: ICON Health, 2005. Print.



Pierce, Benjamin A. The Family Genetic Sourcebook. New York: Wiley, 1990. Print.



Riordan, John R., Richard C. Boucher, and Paul M. Quinton, eds. Cystic Fibrosis: A Trilogy of Biochemistry, Physiology, and Therapy. Cold Spring Harbor: Cold Spring Harbor Lab., 2013. Print.



Thomson, Anne H., and Ann Harris. Cystic Fibrosis: The Facts. 4th ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2008. Print.



Tsui, Lap-Chee. “Cystic Fibrosis, Molecular Genetics.” Encyclopedia of Human Biology. Ed. Renato Dulbecco. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. New York: Academic, 1997. Print.



United States. Cong. Office of Technology Assessment. Cystic Fibrosis and DNA Tests: Implications of Carrier Screening. Washington: GPO, 1992. Print.



United States. Cong. Office of Technology Assessment. Genetic Counseling and Cystic Fibrosis Carrier Screening: Results of a Survey. Washington: GPO, 1992. Print.



Watson, Ronald Ross, ed. Diet and Exercise in Cystic Fibrosis. Waltham: Academic, 2015. Print.



Yankaskas, James R., and Michael R. Knowles, eds. Cystic Fibrosis in Adults. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1999. Print.

How does the choice of details set the tone of the sermon?

Edwards is remembered for his choice of details, particularly in this classic sermon. His goal was not to tell people about his beliefs; he ...