What are the implications of this sentence: “If he held his mouth right, Mr. Cunningham could get a WPA job”? What larger issue must a person...

If Mr. Walter Cunningham would vote for politicians in favor of social programs such as the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and comply in other ways ("hold his mouth right"), he could get a job with this government department and be better able to support his family.

If he were to go to work with the WPA, Mr. Cunningham would lose his farm because he would not be able to cultivate his land. Furthermore, like many farmers, Mr. Cunningham loves the good earth that he toils in for hours so that it will produce food and provide for his family, so his loss would be emotional and a matter of pride as well as financial. Added to these losses, Mr. Cunningham would lose his independence by working for the government, since he would no longer be his own boss. He would also be expected to go to whichever areas the government sent him to work and to vote on the side of the political party which issues the WPA checks.

Mr. Cunningham is not willing to sacrifice his integrity and independence, so he refuses to take a WPA job. Instead, he ekes out his living on his farm, knowing that something belongs to him even if he is financially strapped.

Why is colorblindness more common in males than females?

Colorblindness is more common in males than in females because it is considered to be a sex-linked trait. In this case, the gene for this trait is located along the X chromosome, and males tend to inherit X-linked conditions more frequently than their female counterparts. 

Males have only one X chromosome, which they inherit at fertilization from their mother's egg. They inherit a Y chromosome from their father's sperm. Because they only possess one copy of the X chromosome, they are said to be hemizygous for any genes located on the X chromosome. Therefore, if they inherit one copy of a normal vision gene on their X chromosome, they will have normal vision; if they inherit a colorblindness gene on their X chromosome, they will have a colorblind phenotype. 

Females, on the other hand, possess two X chromosomes—one from each parent. If a female has two X chromosomes and each has the gene for normal vision, she will have normal vision. If one X chromosome has a normal vision gene and one X has the colorblindness gene, the normal vision gene will be expressed in the heterozygous individual because it is dominant. A female must have two colorblind genes—one from each parent—in order for her to have the colorblind phenotype. The chances of this occurring are low, and that is supported by the fact that very few females are colorblind.

What is elder abuse?

Introduction

Elder abuse is the physical, emotional, or psychological injury or risk of injury; financial exploitation; or neglect in providing basic needs of an older adult. Although there is no universally accepted definition of old age, generally sixty or sixty-five years is considered the beginning of old age. Older Americans are the fastest growing population in the United States. According to the US Census Bureau, individuals sixty-five years of age and older made up more than 13 percent of the US population in 2012; that number is expected to increase to more than 20 percent by 2050, according to estimates by the US Department of Health and Human Services' Administration on Aging. As more responsibility is placed on family members to care for aging relatives, elder abuse is likely to increase as well.

Elder abuse usually constitutes repetitive acts of commission or omission that threaten the health and welfare of an older adult. Elder abuse does not receive the same recognition as child abuse and spousal violence and is often underreported or not reported at all. As such, the number of abused elders is probably highly underestimated. Victims often do not report abuse because they are embarrassed, fearful of repercussions by their caregivers, and likely to harbor feelings of guilt if they report their only source of shelter, support, and care.

Because so few people report elder abuse, it is important for health care providers to identify and know their obligations to report such abuse. In 1981, Congress proposed legislation to establish a national center on elder abuse, but the bill never reached the floor of Congress. In 1989, it was reintroduced as an amendment to the Older Americans Act, and elder abuse was finally recognized in federal legislation.

Types of Abuse

Physical abuse is the deliberate infliction of physical pain or injury. Examples include slapping, punching, bruising, or restraining. Psychological abuse is the infliction of mental or emotional anguish. Examples include verbal insults, humiliation, or threats. Financial exploitation is using the resources of an elderly person without consent. Examples include writing checks without permission and stealing money. Neglect is failure of a caretaker to provide basic needs to prevent physical harm, mental anguish, or illness. Examples include withholding nourishment, ignoring cleanliness, and neglecting physical needs. Self-neglect occurs when an elderly person compromises his or her health and safety by refusing assistance in care. Examples include refusing to eat and refusing needed medications. Sexual abuse is any unwanted sexual behavior. Examples include inappropriate touching and rape.

Possible Causes

Risks for elder abuse are divided into four major categories: physical and mental impairment of the victim, caregiver stress, transgenerational violence, and abuser psychopathology. Impairment of a dependent elder and a family history of violence and substance abuse are also identified as causes for elder abuse.

Though studies do not relate the victim’s level of frailty to abuse, physical and mental impairment indirectly increase the risk of abuse because the victims are unable to leave an abusive environment or effectively defend themselves.

Caregiver stress may result in acting out anger toward the elderly person. Stress factors contributing to such outbursts may be related to the victim as well as to the caregiver and include alcohol or drug abuse, employment issues, low income, increased risk of falls, incontinence, verbal or physical aggression, and poor caregiving skills caused by a lack of knowledge about how to care for the elderly.

Transgenerational violence supports the premise that abuse is a learned behavior passed between generations. As such, a child who was abused by a parent may be abusive to the parent on becoming the caregiver. Domestic violence can persist throughout the life span and does not necessarily stop in old age.

Abuser psychopathology relates elder abuse to substance abuse and addiction, personality and mental disorders, and dementia. Risk factors for elder abuse as identified by the American Medical Association include living with the abuser, dementia, social isolation, and mental illness as well as alcohol or drug use by the caregiver. Other theories that have been used to explain elder abuse are exchange theory, which proposes dependencies between a victim and a perpetrator related to reactions and responses that continue into adulthood;
social learning theory, which proposes that abuse is learned; and political economic theory, which proposes that the challenges faced by elders leave them in poverty and take away their importance in community life. Political economic theory addresses the marginalization of elders in society.

Prevention

Every state in the United States defines elder abuse, has passed elder abuse prevention laws, and employs some form of an elder abuse reporting system. Unfortunately, laws and the definition of abuse are inconsistent among states. Adult Protective Services (APS) are available in every state but provide assistance only when the victim agrees or is rendered mentally incapable to make decisions by the courts. Education about what constitutes abuse and neglect needs to be clear. Additionally, an understanding that abusive behavior in any form is never acceptable needs to be established. Finally, information about counseling for caregivers should be available so they know that services and support exist for them when they require it. Educating the public and raising public awareness of the extent of elder abuse are effective ways to prevent elder abuse. Increased social services to provide support for caregivers, respite care and counseling for family, and information about social issues that are triggers for abuse can be instrumental in preventing abuse. Developing an understanding of the risk factors for elder abuse and its signs and symptoms are also crucial in preventing cases of elder abuse.

Psychology Today offers some tips for older adults to keep them safe from abuse. These tips include maintaining a social life, remaining in touch with friends after moving in with a relative, asking a friend to check in weekly, and inviting friends to visit often. Older adults are also encouraged to make new friends and participate in community activities. They should check their own mail, report instances in which mail is intercepted, and have their own telephones. They should keep track of their belongings and make others aware that they know where everything should be. Older adults should attend to their personal needs as much as possible and keep appointments with doctors and dentists and other planned activities. They should maintain financial control and have Social Security or pension checks deposited directly to a personal bank account. Older adults should obtain legal advice about possible future disability, wills, property, powers of attorney, guardianships, or conservatorships. They should keep records, accounts, and property available for trusted people to manage affairs when they no longer can. They should not live with a person who exhibits violent behavior or alcohol or drug abuse. They should not leave their homes unattended for lengths of time or leave signs that they are not home, such as notes on the door. Instead, they should notify the police when they will be away. Older adults should not leave cash, jewelry, or other valuables in nonsecure locations. They should not accept personal care in return for the transfer or assignments of property unless a lawyer, advocate, or trusted person acts as a witness. They should not sign documents unless someone they trust has reviewed it and should not allow anyone to keep details of their finances or property management from them.

Diagnosis and Screening

Elder abuse often goes undetected because its signs and symptoms may be missed or victims may deny that injuries are a result of abuse. Symptoms may be mistaken for dementia, or caregivers may explain them to others in that way. Because elder abuse can present itself in many different ways, injuries must be evaluated based on the victim’s general health and psychosocial environment. If elder abuse is diagnosed, then the victim’s safety must be ensured while respecting his or her autonomy and independence. Some alerts for suspected abuse include bruises and lacerations; broken or fractured bones, untreated injuries in various stages of healing; sprains, dislocations, and internal injuries; medication overdoses or underutilization of prescribed drugs; a victim’s report of being hit, kicked, or mistreated; a sudden change in behavior, such as agitation, depression, or withdrawal; dehydration or malnutrition; untreated bedsores and poor hygiene; untreated health problems; unsafe or unclean living conditions; and a caregiver’s refusal of visitors.

Besides the physical signs of abuse, there are a variety of assessment tools for screening for elder abuse. Health care providers should screen patients who are sixty years of age and older for abuse at least annually. Some questions that the American Medical Association suggests should be asked are the following:
Has anyone at home ever hurt you?


Has anyone ever touched you without your consent?


Has anyone taken anything that was yours without asking?


Has anyone ever threatened you?


Have you ever signed any documents that you didn’t understand or you didn’t want to sign?


Are you afraid of anyone at home?


Are you alone a lot?


Has anyone ever failed to help you take care of yourself when you needed help?

Reporting Abuse

Area Agency on Aging, the county Department of Social Services, and Adult Protective Services are agencies that investigate elder abuse and neglect. State ombudsman’s offices are instrumental in investigating and identifying elder abuse in long-term-care facilities. Once abuse or neglect is confirmed, protection services are mobilized. If the victim is mentally competent, then the victim must agree to accept the assistance. Alternately, the victim must be deemed by the courts to be mentally incapable of making decisions before assistance is mobilized.

All people share responsibility for reporting suspected cases of elder abuse. Professionals such as social workers, police officers, teachers, physicians, nurses, and those who provide services to the elderly are required by law to report suspected cases of elder abuse. One resource for reporting is the Eldercare Locator Hotline at (800) 677-1116. Calls are directed to a local agency for assistance. If 911 is called for suspected elder abuse, then the local police will intervene.

Bibliography

“Elder abuse.” HelpGuide.org. http://www.helpguide.org/mental/.

“Elder or dependent abuse.” Psychology Today. http://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/.

Hall, Barbara, and Terry Scragg, eds. Social Work with Older People: Approaches to Person-Centered Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012. Print.

Heath, J. M., F. A. Kobylarz, and M. Brown. “Interventions from Home-Based Geriatric Assessments of Adult Protective Service Clients Suffering Elder Mistreatment.” Journal of American Geriatric Society 53 (2005): 1538–42. Print.

Koenig, R. J., and C. R. DeGuerre. “The Legal and Governmental Response to Domestic Elder Abuse.” Clinical Geriatric Medicine 21.2 (2005): 383–98. Print.

Murray, Christine E., and Kelly N. Graves. Responding to Family Violence: A Comprehensive, Research-Based Guide for Therapists. New York: Routledge, 2013. Print.

Phelan, Amanda, ed. International Perspectives on Elder Abuse. New York: Routledge, 2013. Print.

"Projected Future Growth of the Older Population." Administration on Aging. Dept. of Health and Human Services, n.d. Web. 15 May 2014.

Quinn, K., and H. Zielke. “Elder Abuse, and Exploitation: Policy Issues.” Clinical Geriatric Medicine 21.2 (2005): 449–57. Print.

Sellas, Monique, and Laurel Krouse. “Elder Abuse Overview.” http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/.

"USA." United States Census Bureau. US Dept. of Commerce, 27 Mar. 2014. Web. 15 May 2014.

Describe the house of Tom Buchanan in The Great Gatsby.

In the first chapter, even before he goes to Tom and Daisy's house, Nick describes the residences of East Egg as glittering "white palaces."  When Nick does arrive at the home of his cousin and her husband, he describes the house as "elaborate" -- even more than he expected it would be (and he was expecting a palace!).  Their home is a Georgian Colonial of red and white, right on the bay.  The yard was a full quarter mile of gardens and sidewalks and lawn ornaments, with the "mansion" at one end and the beach at the other.  The front of the house was lined with windows (which would certainly give it the appearance of glittering when the sunlight and light reflected by the ocean hit them).  We also find out that the Buchanans have a dock, one with a green light at the very end (for it is at this light that Gatsby frequently stares when he thinks of Daisy).

What is the Offal Court like?

Tom Canty, who was born on the same day as Prince Edward, lived in Offal Court. Offal Court was a reserve of the poor families in London. In the story, it was stated that although London streets were narrow, dirty and crooked, the situation was worse in the area where Tom and his family lived. The place was filthy, and the houses were dilapidated.  Offal Court was basically a storied building which was decayed, shaky and inhabited by poor families. Among them was Tom’s family, who occupied the third floor. The houses were small, with a general area which was not partitioned. In Tom’s case, the parents turned one corner into their bedroom while the rest of the floor doubled as the children’s’ bedroom. They had no beds; instead they used old straw and torn blankets. Drunkenness and violence were prevalent in the area. In Tom’s home, both his father and grandmother were violent drunks.

The house which Tom's father lived in was up a foul little pocket called Offal Court, out of Pudding Lane. It was small, decayed, and rickety, but it was packed full of wretchedly poor families.

All Offal Court was just such another hive as Canty's house. Drunkenness, riot and brawling were the order, there, every night and nearly all night long.

What is intimacy?

Introduction

Intimacy is the opening of oneself to another person so that the two individuals can share with each other their innermost thoughts and feelings that are usually kept hidden from other people. The word “intimacy” derives from intimus, the Latin term for “inner” or “inmost.” It denotes a kind of sharing that comes from within and inspires thoughts of closeness, warmth, and shared affection. Intimacy also involves getting close enough to another person that he or she can see not only one’s positive qualities and strengths but also one’s hidden faults and weaknesses. Authentic closeness between two persons requires that both of them step out of their traditional roles, dispense with their usual facades, and try to become their true selves. Intimacy with another person is, therefore, a combination of individual identity and mutual sharing. In a healthy intimacy, two individuals move into a relationship with each other, sharing common interests without losing their separate identities. Interpersonal exchange in intimate relationships is an end in itself rather than a means to achieving any other goal.

Intimacy, by its very nature, is elusive, subjective, and intensely private. An important basis of intimacy is the sharing of private thoughts and feelings through self-disclosure. Such self-disclosure involves the sharing of both pleasant and unpleasant feelings and emotions. There appears to be something uniquely intimate about sharing personal pain. It is also considered intimate to share feelings of love, caring, attraction, and closeness, as well as well as hopes, joys, accomplishments, and pride. The sharing of joyous experiences and cherished memories is considered to be as intimate as that of unpleasant experiences and long-suppressed secrets. In addition, intimacy refers not just to the act of self-disclosure but also to the interpersonal interaction in which self-disclosure is validated and reciprocated.

Nonverbal behaviors are as important to intimacy as are verbal expressions. Sex is cited as the most frequent example, but other examples include being with another person in an atmosphere of comfort and ease; hand-holding; hugging; sharing excitement, joy, and laughter; and doing things together. Other examples include sharing the touch, taste, and smell of cherished objects. Feeling good in the presence of each other, touching each other in silence, having a quiet dinner together, and silently sharing excitement and anticipation are some other examples that illustrate intimacy.

Intimacy also denotes a special type of feeling that is often described in terms of warmth, closeness, and love. Intimacy can thus refer to individual behavior (such as self-disclosure), to interactions between two partners, to types of relationships, and to specific feelings. Intimate partners experience a unique sense of exuberance, warmth, and vitality. Sometimes they waver, intermittently feeling both closeness and distance. At other times, there can be a simultaneous experience of both closeness and distance.

Self-Identity

A positive and realistic sense of self is a prerequisite for healthy intimacy. Intimacy requires a full awareness of one’s own feelings, thoughts, and values and the ability to bring that awareness into a relationship with another. As one becomes aware of one’s own self-identity and self-understanding, one is able to move into a relationship with another individual who also maintains a somewhat similar sense of healthy self-identity. Intimacy involves being able to share worlds while maintaining one’s own boundaries. It requires being honest with oneself and one’s partner, even during those times when one is not focused on sharing or is in some other way preoccupied.

A person who is aware of his or her own needs and is willing to explore his or her own limitations and potentialities will allow another to do the same. This may, at times, lead to conflicts. Variations in emotional expression, the nature of attention, and the quality of communication are bound to occur in a relationship from time to time and are unavoidable. The truly intimate partners are able to handle such occasional turmoil with graceful acceptance and mutual respect.

Healthy intimacy is notable for an ability to maintain a solid, self-sustained sense of identity while remaining emotionally engaged with another. The sense of self in a person involved in an intimate relationship is very resilient. Such a person is able and willing to differ with another and still maintain his or her unique identity, expressed through thoughts, feelings, values, vulnerabilities, strengths, desires, and fantasies. A person with a healthy sense of self can tolerate multiple, distinct, and coequal realities. Such people can be themselves in the presence of others, and can accept others being themselves.

A less-than-healthy relationship is marked by blurred or indistinct boundaries. In such relationships, a person pays an inordinate amount of attention to the other individual to monitor his or her actions and, more important, reactions. Even minor differences can be anxiety producing and/or threatening. One attempts to deny, minimize, or rapidly smooth differences out of existence. Contact with a partner is neither solid nor comfortable because the closeness causes anxiety about losing one’s self, whereas separateness creates anxiety about losing the other person. If the self-identity is shaky or insecure, there is an inability to maintain proper boundaries and, in turn, a resistance to really “letting in” another person—whether emotionally or intellectually. In extreme cases, contact with the partner’s differing reality is so difficult that it may give rise to an illusion of an alternate reality or a sense of no connection whatsoever.

An alternative to this sort of distortion is to allow both oneself and one’s partner to be transparent and visible. When separateness is maintained, the option to know another person exists. One’s self is solid enough to withstand the risks that accompany intense emotional involvement—the inevitability of misunderstanding, disappointment, disapproval, conflict, rejection, and even loss. In a paradoxical sense, one can only have as good a relationship as one is willing to lose. This is one of the key dynamics that largely determines how much emotional intensity and intimacy a person is capable of handling.

Risk and Vulnerability

Being intimate with another individual necessitates risk and vulnerability through self-disclosure. Intimacy inherently feels risky because one goes out to the edge of individual expression without being certain how the other person will respond. Whereas closeness affirms and sustains a relationship, intimacy reveals and affirms individuality, and, in the process, changes the nature and quality of a relationship. A person who is able to maintain individuality in the midst of togetherness can reap the rewards of both closeness and intimacy. If not, one swings between compulsive togetherness and reactive individuality.

Intimate relationships evolve gradually and naturally. The more valued the relationship, the more there is to lose. One feels more anxiety in being intimate in the sense of being honestly and fully oneself. There is always some amount of tension between closeness and intimacy. The paradox of closeness and intimacy is that the only way to really have either is to be willing at times to sacrifice closeness for the sake of intimacy.

Intimacy and Sexuality

Although intimacy is commonly thought of in connection with sex, sex is not a necessary component of intimacy. Satisfying intimate relationships in themselves are the most important source of people’s happiness. Intimacy is a very important ingredient in the quality of love
and sex. A high degree of intimacy between two lovers or spouses contributes to the happiness, emotional stability, and sexual enrichment of both. All activities are more enjoyable and life is richer and more colorful when shared with an intimate partner. Sexual experiences are more pleasurable if the partners know each other intimately, when they are completely open and vulnerable, when they can trust each other to care about each other’s feelings, and when they take pleasure in each other’s pleasure.

Intimacy and Well-Being

Humans are social animals, and without intimate relationships they risk loneliness and depression. The availability of intimate relationships is an important determinant of how well people master life’s crises. Satisfying intimate relationships are a very important source of most people’s happiness. An intimate involvement with a special someone provides a person with a purpose and meaning in life and seems to promote a sense of overall well-being. Intimate relationships have been shown to buffer people from the pathogenic effects of stress. People in intimate relationships have fewer stress-related symptoms and faster recoveries from illnesses. Intimate partners confide in each other, which has been shown to carry its own health benefits. Individual well-being and intimate relationships appear to be closely intertwined. People in satisfied intimate relationships have been shown to be less vulnerable to the negative outcomes of stress than those who lack such relationships.

Difficulties in Intimacy

People may find it difficult to develop and maintain intimacy in two different ways: They are compulsively searching for intimacy but are unable or unwilling to invest time and energy in developing meaningful intimate relationships, or they are afraid of losing their identity and, therefore, purposefully avoid intimate relationships.

Some people harbor unrealistic expectations about intimacy and closeness. Such people are always looking for instant intimacy, even at the cost of compromising their basic values. They tend to share secrets instantly and pour out their life stories in search of establishing immediate contact and emotional intensity. In doing so, they often end up surrendering their personal boundaries in a relationship. This tendency to lose the sense of self and define oneself through the response of others is called emotional fusion. In such a fusion, the boundaries of self become quite vague, and the person is unable to withstand much pressure or disagreement from another. Holding a distinct, self-defined position can be a very frightening experience for such a person. In such relationships, partners try to merge their internal experiences into a single common reality. As a result, each person’s well-being gets inextricably linked to the other’s experience and wishes. Both focus on the other, trying to ensure consensus and avoid defining their own reality.

A person with fear of intimacy is basically afraid of losing ego boundaries. There is a lack of interest in and motivation for becoming intimate with others. In most cases, such disturbance in the capacity to form intimate interpersonal relationships stems from early adverse experiences within one’s family. Such a person has an active fear of closeness, suffers from self-doubts, and actively distrusts others. He or she has a very low self-image and is easily susceptible to loneliness and depression. Such a person sees himself or herself as undeserving of the love and support of others, is afraid to trust others, and has an unrealistic fear of dependence. When a person is repeatedly unable to share inner thoughts and feelings with a single other person in a sustained manner, he or she may experience emotional isolation.

Bibliography

Brehm, Sharon S. Intimate Relationships. 5th ed. New York: McGraw, 2008. Print.

Brown, Norman, M., and Ellen S. Amatea. Love and Intimate Relationships. Philadelphia: Brunner, 2000. Print.

Carlson, Jon, and Len Sperry, eds. The Intimate Couple. Philadelphia: Brunner, 1999. Print.

Firestone, Robert W., and Joyce Catlett. Fear of Intimacy. Washington: APA, 2000. Print.

Halling, Steen. Intimacy, Transcendence, and Psychology: Closeness and Openness in Everyday Life. New York: Palgrave, 2008. Print.

Horstman, Judith. The Scientific American Book of Love, Sex, and the Brain: The Neuroscience of How, When, Why, and Who We Love. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2012. Print.

Levine, Suzanne Braun. How We Love Now: Sex and the New Intimacy in Second Adulthood. New York: Viking, 2011. Print.

Paludi, Michele Antoinette. The Psychology of Love. Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2012. Print.

Prager, Karen J. The Psychology of Intimacy. New York: Guilford, 1995. Print.

Sternberg, Robert J., and Karin Weis, eds. The New Psychology of Love. New Haven: Yale UP, 2008. Print.

In Act 2.2.13-107 of Shakespeare’s play Julius Caesar, why does Caesar find Decius’s argument more persuasive than Calpurnia’s?

In this scene, Calpurnia’s fears have so overwhelmed her that she warns Caesar about going out. Even Caesar finds the world’s upheaval to be foreboding. He asks the priests to sacrifice a beast to give him direction. However, to Calpurnia, he shows a strong front:

… the things that threaten'd me
Ne'er look'd but on my back; when they shall see
The face of Caesar, they are vanished.

Calpurnia reports the horrors that she has seen and points out that these pertain to him, because he is no common man but a kind of “prince.” Caesar continues to brush off her fears because “death, a necessary end, / Will come when it will come.” He even interprets the fact that the sacrificed animal has no heart to mean, “Caesar should be a beast without a heart, / If he should stay at home to-day for fear.”

Caesar eventually agrees to stay at home only for Calpurnia’s sake. This way, he can appear to be brave while remaining safe. Unfortunately, Decius arrives and tells Caesar what he wants to hear. Decius reinterprets Calpurnia’s dream, which correctly predicted Caesar’s bloody assassination, as a sign that “Rome shall suck / Reviving blood” from Caesar.

Caesar prefers Decius’s interpretation because the alternative would be too terrible. Decius dismisses Calpurnia’s fears and also suggests the dream foretold Caesar’s crowning, an idea that Caesar finds difficult to resist. Decius knows how to play Caesar’s vanity, and, as Calpurnia says, Caesar’s “wisdom is consumed in confidence.” The great man cannot appear weak in front of his fellow senators or even his wife. Thus, Caesar is led to his death.

What is Tay-Sachs disease?

Causes and Symptoms

Tay-Sachs disease is a genetic disorder of lipid (fat) metabolism

resulting from a missing enzyme. This enzyme normally breaks down special nerve lipids known as gangliosides, which are present in the brain and spinal cord. These substances accumulate and destroy the cells, often killing the child by age three or four years.

Several features at birth may raise the possibility of early detection, particularly cherry-red spots on the retina of the eye. Most newborns with Tay-Sachs disease, however, appear normal at birth. Between the ages of three months and six months, the progressive neurologic damage becomes apparent: deafness, blindness, muscle paralysis, and developmental disorders. By eighteen months, the infant is usually already in a vegetative state, requiring complete care. The child may survive until three or four years of age, dying from complications associated with comatose and bedridden patients, usually infections.

Treatment and Therapy

Tay-Sachs disease has no cure, and only supportive measures can be used. Feeding tubes for nutrition and fluids, suctioning of throat secretions, meticulous skin care for bed sores, and oxygen to assist breathing are among the types of support needed. Full-time skilled nursing care at home or at a facility is often necessary.

Perspectives and Prospects

While Tay-Sachs disease is the most common lipid (or lysosomal) storage disease, it is rare in the general population—about one in 250 people carry the genetic mutation that causes Tay-Sachs. It is much more common, however, in people of Ashkenazi (Eastern European) Jewish ancestry, as well as those of French Canadian and Cajun ancestry. Among these populations, approximately one person in twenty-seven is a carrier of the genetic defect. If two such carriers have children, they have a 25 percent chance of having a child with Tay-Sachs disease. Prenatal testing using amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling can detect affected fetuses. More important is genetic counseling and screening of couples with a family history. A blood test can identify carriers.

Ongoing research is attempting to correct the disease in the developing fetus through the insertion of the missing gene.

Bibliography

Bartoshesky, Louis E. "Tay-Sachs Disease." KidsHealth.org. Nemours Foundation, May 2011.

Behrman, Richard E., Robert M. Kliegman, and Hal B. Jenson, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 19th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2011.

Bellenir, Karen, ed. Genetic Disorders Sourcebook: Basic Consumer Information About Hereditary Diseases and Disorders. 3d ed. Detroit, Mich.: Omnigraphics, 2004.

Gormley, Myra Vanderpool. Family Diseases: Are You at Risk? Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing, 2002.

Harper, Peter S. Practical Genetic Counselling. 7th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Hollenstein, Jenna, and Kari-Kassir. "Tay-Sachs Disease." Health Library, Nov. 26, 2012.

McCance, Kathryn L., and Sue M. Huether. Pathophysiology: The Biologic Basis for Disease in Adults and Children. 6th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier, 2010.

Milunsky, Aubrey, ed. Genetic Disorders of the Fetus: Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment. 6th ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

"NINDS Tay-Sachs Disease Information Page." National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Oct. 6, 2011.

Parker, James N., and Philip M. Parker, eds. The Official Parent’s Sourcebook on Tay-Sachs Disease. San Diego, Calif.: Icon Health, 2002.

"Tay-Sachs Disease." MedlinePlus, May 9, 2013.

"Tay-Sachs Disease." National Tay-Sachs and Allied Diseases Association, 2012.

What point is Bierce making with the sentinels' indifference to the action at the center of the bridge and with the statement that they "might have...

It is not a flattering description of these soldiers.  At the center of the bridge, a man is about to die for his beliefs, for trying to stand up for his principles.  Neither we (I should hope) nor they would agree with what he believes -- Peyton Farquhar is described as a slave-owner and secessionist who would like to see the South leave the Union in order to preserve its way of life -- however, the man is, nonetheless, about to lose his life.  Even though the Union soldiers, cannot abide by the choices Farquhar has made, especially the choice to try to burn down the Owl Creek Bridge in order to disable the railroads and prevent efficient communication for the Union army, they must on some level agree with him that "all is fair in [...] war" at least or else they would not appear to condone the execution of a civilian without a trial, without allowing him to say goodbye to his wife and children.  Their complete lack of emotion, their lack of empathy for a fellow human being in the moments just before he is hanged, is an indictment of the behavior of both sides in a war.  It isn't just the Peyton Farquhars who are to blame for the war; there are men behaving badly, without reference to their humanity, on both sides. 

What is cross-addiction?

Causes

Scientists now understand that addiction is a physiological problem caused both by nature and by nurture. A person who becomes an addict often inherits a sensitive brain and develops behavioral habits that lead to chemical changes in the brain. These changes, in turn, lead the person to use toxic substances against his or her will.

Research confirms that all drugs of abuse, including alcohol, marijuana, nicotine, amphetamines, barbiturates, opiates, and heroin, work on the same neurological pathways in key areas of the brain—in particular, dopamine receptors and the limbic system, a primitive area focused on meeting basic needs. Dopamine is a “feel-good” chemical that tricks the limbic system into equating drugs with pleasure or relief, and even with survival.

In people who are genetically predisposed to addiction, the release of dopamine is more intense, and it unleashes what is known as the phenomenon of craving. Such persons cannot limit their intake of an addictive drug because of this craving. People who do not come from a family of addicts or alcoholics can, through force of habit, still become addicted to toxic drugs and experience the same phenomenon.

Often when a person attempts to quit a drug of choice, he or she will use another drug to satisfy the craving and essentially keep the reward pathways of the brain in hypersensitive mode. Alternatively, cross addicts who have no desire to quit will mix a cocktail of drugs to get a desired effect.

Risk Factors

The dopamine hypothesis suggests that if a person is addicted to one drug, they are at higher risk of becoming addicted to another. For people who are trying to quit a particular drug, cross-addiction can lead to a relapse of the original drug-taking behavior because of the sustained craving and because of impaired decision-making abilities.

Symptoms

The symptoms of addiction feature three characteristics: chemical dependency, drug-taking habits, and denial of dependency and habits. Chemical dependency involves four components: craving, or the compulsion to ingest a mood-altering substance; impaired control of the amount ingested on any given occasion; physical dependence, which produces a period of withdrawal when the drug is discontinued; and tolerance, or the need for more of the drug to feel its effects.

Cross addicts are often in extreme denial. They tend to be more secretive than alcoholics and will hide their behavior from friends and family members. Because most drugs are illegal, cross addicts often suffer from paranoia.

Screening and Diagnosis

Cross-addictions are far more dangerous than alcoholism alone, because mixing drugs and alcohol can lead to death sooner. As with alcoholism, cross-addiction requires a certain amount of self-diagnosis to be treatable.

Dependence can be diagnosed when the person admits to three or more of the following: taking substances in greater amounts than intended; a persistent desire to cut down or stop using fails to change the behavior; frequent intoxication or presence of withdrawal symptoms that interfere with functioning; spending significant amounts of time acquiring drugs or dealing with the consequences of use; giving up activities in order to use drugs; persistent use despite adverse consequences; marked tolerance; withdrawal symptoms; and the use of drugs to treat withdrawal symptoms.

Treatment and Therapy

Intensive therapy and treatment are required to break an addiction without transferring that addiction. The first step is building self-awareness and an understanding of the nature of addiction. Sobriety must be the first priority, and it should be affirmed and nurtured daily.

If a person transfers an addiction from one substance to another, the brain remains in addictive mode; the neural associations and pathways have no opportunity to become disabled and dormant. Thus, the cycle of cross-addiction can be broken only by stopping the drug-taking and by remaining totally abstinent from all mind-altering drugs.

Acute withdrawal symptoms, such as sweating and nausea, can last a couple of weeks. Postacute withdrawal symptoms can happen for two years. These bouts tend to last three or four days and produce irritability, mood swings, variable energy, low enthusiasm, disturbed sleep, and difficulty concentrating. The first two years are the most difficult; after five years of abstinence, relapse is uncommon.

Prevention

Recovery is a lifelong process that requires new coping skills. Relaxation is chief among them; rigorous honesty and avoiding high-risk situations also will help prevent a relapse.

People who have been addicted to one drug must be vigilant, because cross-addiction can occur by happenstance. A recovering alcoholic, for example, may go to the dentist and be prescribed pain medicine, to which he or she develops a chemical dependency. Without thinking about it, the patient begins to increase the dosage and frequency of the pain medication and may seek unnecessary refills. Not all doctors learn about the physiology of addiction, so to protect oneself, a recovering addict must be wary when taking prescription medications.

Bibliography

Christopher, James. How to Stay Sober: Recovery without Religion. New York: Prometheus, 1988. Print.

Johnson, Marlys C., and Phyllis Alberici. Cross-Addiction: The Hidden Risk of Multiple Addictions. New York: Rosen, 1999. Print.

Kipper, David, and Steven Whitney. “Cross-Addiction.” The Addiction Solution: Unraveling the Mysteries of Addiction through Cutting-Edge Brain Science. New York: Rodale, 2010. Print.

Ries, Richard, and Shannon C. Miller. Principles of Addiction Medicine. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 2009. Print.

Where in the spinning cycle is there the most potential energy?

In the spinning cycle, any fixed point on the wheel goes through a cycle. It goes through a point of maximum elevation and point of minimum elevation. The minimum elevation point is typically the ground surface, if you are cycling outdoors. Since the potential energy is a function of the height of an object with respect to a datum, the maximum potential energy is at the highest point in the cycle. This point is at the greatest distance from the ground. 

A point from its location of maximum potential energy goes to the lowest point, a position that will correspond to minimum potential energy. During this motion, the potential energy converts to kinetic energy. Then the point again goes towards the maximum elevation and energy again converts to potential energy. 

This energy conversion continues as the cycle spins.

Hope this helps.

What were the four major goals of the Progressive Movement?

The Progressive Movement had several goals. One goal was to get the average person more involved in politics. Through a series of reforms, politics was changed. The 17th amendment allowed people to directly elect their United States Senators instead of having them chosen by the state legislature. The recall allowed people to remove an elected from office before his or her term was up if that person wasn’t doing what he or she was supposed to do. The referendum gave people a say on proposed laws. With a binding referendum, the vote of the people was final. The initiative allowed people to be able to get their elected officials to introduce their ideas into a proposed law.

The Progressive Movement wanted to control the actions of big businesses. There was a concern that big businesses had too much power. By using the Sherman Antitrust Act, President Roosevelt and President Taft broke up many big corporations. The Clayton Antitrust Act prevented businesses from doing unfair business practices such as charging different prices to different customers. It also gave unions the legal right to form.

Helping workers was another goal of the movement. Workers had no compensation if they were injured on the job. That changed with the development of worker compensation laws. Workers faced unsafe and unhealthy conditions in factories. Health and safety regulations were developed during the Progressive Era. For example, fire escapes couldn’t be locked while workers were on the job. Laws were passed to regulate child labor. Kids weren’t allowed to work in certain industries under a certain age. Children were also required to attend school. Workers often worked long hours each day. Railroad workers got an eight-hour day with the passage of the Adamson Act.

Laws were passed to protect consumers. The Meat Inspection Act required the federal government to inspect and to approve meat before it could be sold. The Pure Food and Drug Act made it illegal for companies to sell improperly labeled food and medicine. These laws were designed to protect consumers and to deal with dishonest business methods.

The Progressive Movement had many goals. These goals were designed to protect the average person in many areas of life.

What is the thyroid gland?

Structure and Functions

The human body is, to an extraordinary extent, under the metabolic control of chemical secretions called hormones. These molecules are produced by the ductless, or endocrine, glands and carry messages that regulate the rate of production of necessary substances in remote parts of the organism. The endocrine glands in turn are largely controlled by the nervous system, which also uses chemical messengers to manage the multiple and interrelated systems of the body.

The thyroid gland was one of the earliest glands to be studied in detail. It synthesizes, stores, and secretes two principal hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine. These substances stimulate carbohydrate metabolism and protein synthesis or breakdown.

The first description of the thyroid that has been accepted as definite was given by Thomas Wharton in 1656; he also named the gland. In his studies of all the glands, he performed animal dissections and human autopsies. Although his written accounts were widely reprinted, it was more than two hundred years later before any serious further work was undertaken.

Nineteenth century clinical studies of goiter (swelling of the thyroid) and hyperthyroidism (the gland’s overproduction of hormones) contributed little to an understanding of the thyroid. An exception is found in the study of the insufficient production of hormone by the thyroid, called hypothyroidism. English and Swiss physicians made discoveries that are considered by some medical historians to be as important as the demonstration that the element iodine is associated with thyroid action.

In the 1870s, the Swiss surgeon Emil Theodor Kocher began to describe the significance of the thyroid gland and its role in goiter formation. He was awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for providing a fuller appreciation of the thyroid and associated glands. Kocher was neither a physiologist nor a pathologist by training or disposition, but he recognized that to be an effective surgeon it was essential to understand well the function of the thyroid and its role in the goiters so common in Bern. In this region, 80 to 90 percent of schoolchildren had a malfunctioning thyroid gland and the often-associated goiter. Kocher’s drawings in books and papers show that such enlargements are extremely disfiguring and often interfere with normal breathing and speech.

In Kocher’s day, little was known about any of the endocrine glands, of which the thyroid is the first to have been studied surgically. Such glands deposit chemical regulatory substances called hormones directly into the bloodstream, which carries them to the sites of their activity.

Later clinical observations provided evidence that the thyroid gland produces some material essential for good health. In 1896, Eugen Baumann made the key discovery that the thyroid contains an unusual amount of iodine. He also showed that this excess iodine is present in a protein that he could decompose with water to yield a new substance. During the next twenty-five years, technical progress was made to the point that the hormone thyroxine could be produced in a pure, crystalline form.

With the new tool of radioactive iodine, a powerful method for the study of thyroid functions and malfunctions became available. For example, overactive and underactive thyroid glands can be easily determined through the ingestion of a tiny amount of one of the radioactive isotopes of iodine and the later determination of the amount of the tracer present in the thyroid.

Disorders and Diseases

It is possible for the thyroid to produce either too much (hyperthyroidism) or too little (hypothyroidism) of the hormone thyroxine, which plays a role in controlling metabolism and body growth. If an insufficient quantity of it is produced, the condition called Gull’s disease results. In children, this condition limits both physical and mental growth and is known as congenital hypothyroidism
or cretinism. In Graves’ disease and related conditions, the overactive thyroid gland produces too much hormone. Either of these conditions can produce an enlarged thyroid gland, or goiter. This imbalance existed in many different countries, but physicians designated it by various names, thus causing much misunderstanding and confusion. Emil Kocher’s studies presented the first organization of the field in the form of these basic definitions.

In his first one hundred operations carried out between 1872 and 1883, Kocher completely removed the thyroid gland in thirty-four cases. After a report by his colleague Jacques Louis Reverdin indicating that removal of the thyroid was a causal factor in cretinism, Kocher made as detailed a follow-up of these patients as possible. His conclusion was that if the entire gland was removed, cretinlike symptoms almost always appeared. If at least some of the gland was left, it appeared to regenerate itself and supply the required hormone. He vowed never to remove a thyroid completely again except in the case of malignancy.

Only in the twentieth century did reliable diagnoses and treatments become available for thyroid disorders. Because of the variety of these conditions and their causes, accurate diagnosis is indispensable. Modern approaches that supplement radioactive iodine include ultrasound and the needle biopsy.

The principal difficulty in the treatment of a malfunctioning thyroid gland is the several variations often displayed. Hyperthyroidism can occur in forms that appear quite unrelated to the most common form, Graves’ disease. For example, there may not be a heredity basis, the condition may not spread over the entire gland, the production of antibodies may not be involved, and there may be no progressive failure of the thyroid.

The causes of hypothyroidism are also less than uniform. The age at which the disorder begins is significantly related to its cause. Newborn children with this condition may have never developed the required amount of thyroid tissue. Others may have inherited a defect that prevents the thyroid from producing sufficient hormone. In developing countries, iodine deficiency remains a problem (although an overabundance of that element in the diet of expectant mothers can lead to infants with hypothyroidism and a goiter). Later in life, infection can be the cause of Hashimoto’s disease and the loss of thyroid tissue. Finally, the treatment of an overactive thyroid places a person at risk of later underproduction of hormone.

The most common symptoms associated with thyroid problems are a too rapid or too slow heartbeat, nervousness or a tired and run-down feeling, frequent bowel movements or constipation, and weight loss or weight gain. An excess of the hormones that direct the use of food and the production of energy might reasonably be expected to produce the first of each pair of contrasting observations, while a deficiency would lead to the opposite effects.

The treatment of Graves’ disease falls into three distinct classes, and in modified application these techniques are employed with the other forms of hyperthyroidism. Since the early 1940s, a series of antithyroid drugs have been synthesized. They function by preventing the gland from making hormone, and the symptoms lessen in a short time. Unfortunately, only about 30 percent of patients remain well when the medication is stopped after six to twelve months.

If antithyroid drugs fail to control the overactive thyroid, a radioactive isotope of iodine is often successful. Since the iodine goes directly to the thyroid and remains there for a period of time, it is able to irradiate and destroy a portion of the tissue. It is a demanding task to calculate the proper amount of iodine to administer, but a surprising 80 percent of patients find their condition under control after a single treatment.

Surgical treatment of Graves’ disease and related hyperthyroid conditions became practical with Kocher’s efforts, and it remains the method of choice in many cases. Kocher began his Nobel Prize lecture by describing the crucial importance of the work of Louis Pasteur, Joseph Lister, and others in making surgery on internal organs possible, and he suggested the future of thyroid research when he examined the effective use of extracts and the search for chemical means of providing substitutes for the gland’s secretions.

The standard treatment of hypothyroidism is oral thyroid hormone tablets. Typically, a synthetic form of thyroxine, called Levothyroxine, is given to compensate for low thyroid hormone levels. As is the case with Graves’ disease, good follow-up is essential because the prescribed dosage will likely change with the patient’s age. The administration of too much thyroxine can lead to hyperthyroidism.

Two notes should be made in concluding this discussion of malfunctions of the thyroid. First, there is a tendency to believe that iodine prevents and cures goiter. Statements to that effect, found in many general reference books, are both misleading and dangerous. Second, publications for laypersons tend to minimize the importance of thyroid blood tests, which is a serious disservice. Regular and complete physical examinations are essential in maintaining good health.

Perspective and Prospects

Historians of medical history have attributed knowledge of the thyroid gland and the treatment of goiter to many significant figures. The works of Galen, Paracelsus, ancient Chinese writers, and other classical Roman and Greek authors, as well as medieval manuscripts, have been studied. In the twentieth century, the study of the thyroid and goiter illustrates central themes in the evolution of medical practice; these are shown clearly in the career of Emil Kocher. His being chosen as an early Nobel laureate is prophetic—first for his role in creating modern surgery, with its total reliance on a germ-free environment and its demand for detail, and second for successful synthesis of the roles of clinician and research scientist. He both possessed the necessary surgical skill to develop such a delicate procedure as thyroidectomy (removal of the thyroid gland) and appreciated the importance of understanding the role played by the thyroid in controlling distant and seemingly unrelated functions. Finally, Kocher kept abreast of any new discovery that might, in any way, be of significance to his surgical goals.

The study of the thyroid in many ways unlocked the secrets of other endocrine glands. As in many areas of scientific research, new medical knowledge follows quickly after the discovery of materials and techniques. At the same time, the search for knowledge provides both motivation and information driving the discovery of materials and techniques.

The identification of iodine as an elemental substance by the French chemist Bernard Courtois in 1811 rapidly led to its indiscriminate use as a treatment for goiter, along with a wide variety of related conditions. Important work in the mid-nineteenth century by A. Chatin demonstrated the high correlation between goiter and low levels of iodine in the food and water supplies throughout central Europe. In the 1930s, with the creation of radioactive isotopes, including those of iodine, a vital and productive new phase of thyroid research began.

A similar pattern is seen during World War II, when four independent research groups showed that sulfa drugs were capable of exerting a strong influence on the behavior of the thyroid. All these studies were conducted within a two-year period, and it was less than a year later that the therapeutic use of sulfa drugs was demonstrated.

While much knowledge and technical skill concerning the thyroid has been gained, the number of conferences and publications devoted to endocrinology attests to the continued importance of that general field of study. For example, while malignant tumors are rare in the thyroid, benign lumps or nodules are common. The reasons for this pattern and the role of endocrine glands in the development and spread of cancerous cells warrant detailed and continuing study.

In 2013, researchers analyzing data from the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey linked exposure to perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) to changes in thyroid function. PFCs are often found in fabrics, cosmetics, and carpets.

Bibliography

Bayliss, R. I. S., and W. M. Tunbridge. Thyroid Disease: The Facts. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Burman, Kenneth D., and Derek LeRoith, eds. Thyroid Function and Disease. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2007..

Dallas, Mary Elizabeth. "Thyroid Disorders Tied to Complications in Pregnancy." MedlinePlus. May 29, 2013.

DeGroot, Leslie J., P. Reed Larsen, and Georg Hennemann. The Thyroid and Its Diseases. 6th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1996.

Holt, Richard I. G., and Neil A. Hanley. Essential Endocrinology and Diabetes. 5th ed. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2007.

Marieb, Elaine N. Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology. 9th ed. San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings, 2009.

Melmed, Schlomo, et al. The Pituitary. 2d ed. Boston: Blackwell Science, 2002.

Moore, Elaine A., and Lisa Moore. Graves’ Disease: A Practical Guide. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2001.

Preidt, Robert. "Chemicals in Carpets, Cosmetics Tied to Thyroid Problems." MedlinePlus. May 29, 2013.

Preidt, Robert. "Iodine Supplements May Be Too Much of a Good Thing." MedlinePlus. June 12, 2013.

Rosenthal, M. Sara. The Thyroid Sourcebook. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.

Ruggieri, Paul, and Scott Isaacs. A Simple Guide to Thyroid Disorders: From Diagnosis to Treatment. Omaha, Nebr.: Addicus Books, 2004.

Wood, Lawrence C., David S. Cooper, and E. Chester Ridgway. Your Thyroid: A Home Reference. 4th rev. ed. New York: Ballantine Books, 2005.

In my PhD interview, how could I answer questions about topics relevant to Alice Munro's short stories and their objectives? What kind of...

In a PhD interview, examiners are normally concerned with the issue of whether you are prepared for postgraduate level work on your specific subject. In particular, you want to give the impression that you have a clear PhD thesis topic in mind and are prepared to write about it. There are some slight differences in national traditions, with European degrees being more research-focused and North American degrees incorporating coursework before you get started on your actual dissertation. Thus if you are applying for a British school, you should be further along in your project than would be necessary for a Canadian or North American one.

That being said, wherever you are applying, you should be able to demonstrate deep knowledge not only of the primary texts of the short stories themselves but of the major critical works about those stories and where you intend to position your work within the existing scholarly conversation. A good starting point with a recent bibliography might be:

Buchholtz, Mirosława (Ed.) Alice Munro: Understanding, Adapting and Teaching. Springer, 2016.

When you discuss the stories themselves, you should probably focus on some of the major themes in connection with Canadian literature and identity. You should be prepared to discuss the role of women in the patriarchal society of the Canadian prairies in the mid-twentieth century. You might look at how women are often complicit in the project of patriarchy, with many of the viewpoint characters in the stories having their dreams or creativity suppressed by pressure from other women. Another important point you should raise is the way the present of characters in the stories is shaped by past traumas which can never be entirely escaped or forgotten. Finally, you should be able to address what makes these stories distinctively Canadian in their ethos of modesty and the prairie cultural proclivity towards consensus.

For a hypothesis, you want a topic that makes an original contribution to the study of Alice Munro. It should be narrowly focused but also have some connection to larger concerns in literary studies. Your choice really depends on your own interests and training. Some possibilities would be:

Education in Alice Munro: For this, you might argue that education is shown in Munro's stories as both a path to freedom and an instrument of oppression for intelligent young women.

Women and the First Nations: In the prairie culture of this period, both women and members of the First Nations were oppressed by white patriarchal authority. You might discuss how the cultural oppression of women, especially through education (e.g. in "Who Do You Think You Are?"), is similar to the issues encountered in the Residential Schools and note any mentions of the First Nations in Munro's work.

Ecocriticism: You might argue for the importance of using an ecocritical approach to Munro, hypothesizing that there is a parallel between the way farmers tamed the land for agricultural and the restrictiveness and strong normativity of the culture, and the way it imposed rigid masculine standards on women.

How did Lev change from the beginning of the book to the end?

The most obvious way that Lev changed from the beginning of the story to the end of the story is in what he is called.  In the beginning of the story, Lev is a "tithe."  This means that he is willingly giving up his life to be unwound.  He will die so others may live.  At the end of the story, Lev is no longer a tithe.  He is a "clapper."  His body has been injected with an explosive compound that will explode if he gets hit hard enough.  What I find interesting is that whether Lev is a tithe or a clapper, he is still willing to give up his own life so that other people may live.  

But his motivation for dying is what the big change in Lev is.  At the story's start, Lev fully supports the unwinding process.  But at the end of the story, he is completely against the unwinding process.  That is why he becomes a clapper.  He wants to destroy the harvest camp. Ultimately, Lev goes from being a character that is kind, loving, and full of optimism, to being a character that is cold, hardened, and quite pessimistic.  

CyFi is the character that helps Lev see the dark side of unwinding, but CyFi only helps begin the change.  Unfortunately, the book Unwind does not clearly explain how or why Lev decides to become a clapper. Shusterman explains more about Lev's motivation to become a clapper in his short story "Unstrung."  It's a digital novella and a quick read.  

Why did North Carolina and Rhode Island not ratify the Constitution?

North Carolina and Rhode Island did ratify the Constitution. They were the last states to do so. There were reasons for their delay in ratifying the Constitution.

When the Constitutional Convention was held, Rhode Island was the only state not to send delegates to the meeting. Rhode Island had little interest in creating a new plan of government, especially one that would give the federal government more power. However, after the other twelve states ratified the Constitution, Rhode Island eventually ratified the Constitution. There were several votes held to ratify the Constitution that had failed in Rhode Island, but they eventually did ratify it.

North Carolina originally voted to take no stance regarding the new Constitution. They were concerned that there were no protections of individual liberties. They wanted to see a Bill of Rights added to the Constitution and suggested various amendments. Once enough states had ratified the Constitution and a promise was made to add a Bill of Rights to the Constitution, North Carolina eventually did agree to ratify it.

While North Carolina and Rhode Island didn’t originally ratify the Constitution, both states eventually agreed to ratify it.

What is the significance of the quote "to prevent one death you will actually make other death?" Why is this statement important in understanding...

Imagine, if you will, that you have no allegiance to any country in the world. Imagine that you are an impartial, third-party observer, like an alien or a god. Imagine watching humans fight with each other across history. In order for humans from one empire to thrive, humans from another empire must die. It seems silly when you don't have any allegiances. 

When cultures collide (militarily, economically, socially, or whatever the case may be) one always has to prevail at the expense of the other. In preventing the death of one's own culture, another culture must die. 

In his book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, Samuel Huntington says this: "Every civilization sees itself as the center of the world and writes its history as the central drama of human history." Any civilization does what it must to prevent its own death. It is the good guy in its own history. This nearly always means the death of another culture or another culture's citizens. 

In order to get a grasp on this, let's examine a well known and violent culture clash from today's world: The West vs. ISIS. 

ISIS continues its terrorist attacks against Western culture. Western countries, feeling threatened and claiming self-defense, firebomb a known ISIS base. Western leaders believe they are preventing the death of Western citizens, but at the cost of causing other deaths, in this case ISIS members. 

To look at it even more metaphysically, ISIS and the West are two fundamentally incompatible cultures. One is theocratic and fascist, the other is secular (in theory) and democratic. The continued existence of Islamic States and ISIS is a threat to the continued existence of the West, and vice versa. 

Being citizens of a Western culture, ISIS seems the bad guy and us the good guys, bravely doing whatever is necessary to prevent the deaths of good, innocent people. 

But, to return to Huntington, "The West won the world not by the superiority of its ideas or values or religion… but rather by its superiority in applying organized violence. Westerners often forget this fact; non-Westerners never do."

How does Hamlet behave suspiciously?

Hamlet has been behaving strangely since his father's death and his mother's very prompt marriage to his uncle, because he is both in mourning for his father and he is very angry at what he views as his mother's disloyalty. He begins to behave even more suspiciously after he speaks with the ghost of his father and learns that Claudius murdered him.  He becomes even more secretive and only really lets his closest friend, Horatio, into his confidence. 

Claudius is so suspicious of him (really just on the grounds of his depressed and salty behavior) that he sends for Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, two of Hamlet's other friends from school, to check up on Hamlet and report back to him.  Based on what Ophelia reports to her father of Hamlet's behavior, Polonius tells the king and queen that Hamlet has likely been driven mad by his love for Ophelia since she has rejected him (at her father's instruction).  Hamlet apparently came to her chamber all dirty, with his stockings down around his ankles, pressing his hand to his forehead, and seeming desperate.  When Polonius confronts Hamlet, Hamlet feigns madness, pretending that he doesn't know who Polonius is.  Also very suspicious is Hamlet's behavior when the players come to the castle, and he has them perform a play that parallels reality. 

What role did Teddy Roosevelt play in the Spanish-American War?

Theodore Roosevelt played two main roles in the Spanish-American War.  First, as a member of the government, he pushed for the US to be prepared for the war and for the US to get involved in the war in an aggressive manner.  Second, once the war actually broke out, Roosevelt famously raised a volunteer regiment called the Rough Riders and served as the second-in-command of the unit.

In the time just before the Spanish-American War, Roosevelt was the Assistant Secretary of the Navy.  Roosevelt believed strongly that a war with Spain would be a good thing for the US.  He felt that war would be morally good for the country because it would make the country tougher.  He felt that war would be good for the US in more material terms because if the US played its cards correctly, it could take territories around the world.  This would allow the US to have naval bases from which it could project power.  For these reasons, Roosevelt argued for war.  He also worked hard to make sure the Navy would be ready if war broke out.  Finally, he messaged Admiral Dewey, commanding US forces in Asia, and ordered him to take the Philippines if the US went to war with Spain.  In these ways, Roosevelt helped prepare the US for war and he helped push the country towards involvement in the war.

Once the war began, Roosevelt wanted to play a more direct part in it.  He badly wanted to test his own masculinity and valor by actually fighting in a war.  In order to accomplish this, he obtained permission to form the Rough Riders.  With them, he fought in Cuba, making his name as a military leader.  Thus, Roosevelt directly participated by fighting in the war.  

If one were to argue against including Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird in a school's curriculum, what would be a counterclaim?

Many high school English teachers argue against including Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird in the curriculum because, though it deals with the topic of racism, it does so through the eyes of the novel's white author, who tippytoed through the subject delicately.

The novel was written in 1960, in the early years of the Civil Rights Movement, but looks back on the 1930s, a time period in which the oppressed had not yet found their leaders, such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks, who would help them raise their voices and take the actions needed to protest against oppression. As a result, Lee approaches the subject of racial oppression without exposing all of its tragic and grizzly details. Instead, she depicts the consequences of racism through the eyes of an innocent white child who really doesn't know a great deal about all of the tragedies that occur around her.

Consequentially, many high school English teachers argue Lee's presentation of racism is shallow and that children today have experienced far more consequences of racism than Lee has had the nerve to write about. Instead, they assert that there are other books today that take a much stronger approach to the topic of racism, and teenagers will be able to relate to those such books much more easily.

That being said, it can also be argued that it was not Lee's intention to expose all of the harsh realities of racial oppression in vivid detail since she was not a member of the oppressed class; one can only write about what one knows about. Instead, she wrote about racism from the perspective of her own white educated class in order to expose the hypocrisies of her own Christian class. In doing so, she contributed a brand new perspective on racism that will always be very relevant and meaningful.

The hypocrisies of the Christian class are especially exposed through such characters as Aunt Alexandra and the members of her missionary circle, members who cry over the conditions the African tribe called the Mrunas are in but get uptight when their own African-American servants go "around grumbling and complaining" any time they face new injustice (Ch. 24). The ladies of the missionary circle further demonstrate hypocrisy when such ladies as Mrs. Merriweather say that the church should help Helen Robinson, Tom Robinson's wife, "lead a Christian life," despite the fact that the Robinsons are already devout Christians and all evidence pointed to Robinson's innocence, not his guilt (Ch. 24). Even the beloved character Miss Maudie displays her fair share of hypocrisy when she once says to Scout, "We're so rarely called on to be Christians, but when we are, we've got men like Atticus to go for us" (Ch. 22). Instead, shouldn't it be said that all Christians are called on to be Christians every single day of their lives?

Hence, all in all, while some may protest that the book presents an outdated, shallow perspective of racism, it can also be argued that it also presents a very realistic perspective of humanity's hypocrisies that will always be relevant.

In "Once Upon a Time" by Nadine Gordimer, what is signified by the wall, the boy, the maid, the wife and the mother-in-law?

Given the way in which the story is framed by the author, and given the very short length of this story, we can safely infer that many of the objects and perhaps even the people within the fairy tale can be meaningfully interpreted as symbols. Let's look at each:

The wall: Probably the most important symbol in the story, the wall represents separation and intolerance, the "closing off" of one's mind. When you place this story in its historical context, the symbol becomes even more important: the author seems to be hinting that the social separation of apartheid cannot be tolerated, that it only leads society to destruction.

The boy: When you consider how he gets ideas from his reading, tries them out, tries to get out and over the wall, and ultimately is destroyed, you might argue that the boy represents some or all of these ideas: youth, open-mindedness, experimentation, exploration, reason and rational thinking, and the striving for openness and equality.

The maid: Take a look at every time the housemaid is mentioned, and notice how she's never just "the housemaid." She's always the "trusted housemaid" or "the reliable housemaid." The implication is that the family believes that most people the same color as the maid are not trustworthy. Combined with the fact that the family's "YOU HAVE BEEN WARNED" sign is carefully constructed so as to not reveal the race of the pictured intruder, we know that they're eager to distance themselves from the notion of racism. The maid, then, possibly represents superficial, ineffective, or insincere efforts to eradicate racism.

The wife: She's the embodiment of both positive ideas (compassion, love, and the desire to protect one's family) and negative ones (excess, complacency, ignorance, obliviousness).

The mother-in-law: As the closest thing that this fairy tale has to a villain in human form, and the oldest character, this "witch" might represent tradition, or the blind adherence to tradition. (The family simply does what the mother-in-law says without question and accepts the gifts she gives, again without thought to their possible consequences.)

Notice how I kept saying that something might represent something else, maybe, possibly, could, and so on. Unless you can find an explanation straight from the author about what's supposed to represent what, you really can't say for certain what one thing symbolizes; you can only make a good argument based on what you see in the text and what you know about the larger context surrounding the story (like the author's biography, where she lives and what was going on socially and politically at the time, and so on). 

Complicating matters further is that, when we’re talking about literary symbolism, any particular thing usually represents more than one other thing. (A story in which every object only represents one definite thing is an allegory.) Other readers may be able to think of many other possible answers to add to this list!

True or false: In the real world of writing, essays are more interested in effectiveness than in purity of form.

I would agree that this is true. The word "essay" is from French, and it means "to try," so embedded in the idea of an essay is the notion of risk-taking. When you are trying something, often purity of form must be sacrificed. Further, almost all essays attempt, beyond all else, to be persuasive. An author has a point to make and hopes his or her audience will agree with it. Sometimes, in order to make that point, it's necessary to violate purity of form. Some essays, like Carolyn Forche's "The Colonel," cross genres: many people label this a prose poem because of its imaginative imagery. Whether or not Forche broke the rules about purity, she had an important point to make about violence in Central America, and the essay/poem made it effectively.

What system eliminates cellular waste through the lungs, skin, and kidneys?

In humans, the excretory system is responsible for removing cellular waste through the lungs, skin, and kidneys. This system has many functions within the body. It is responsible for filtering and removing waste products from bodily fluids while keeping the necessary components responsible for cell homeostasis. It is also responsible for removing these waste products from the body. The excretory system also regulates the amount of "nutrients, salts, and water" in the body to ensure the health of cells.  An often-cited example of the excretory system at work is the removal of nitrogen waste that builds up as a by-product of cellular processes. This nitrogen is converted by the body from ammonia, a very harmful by-product, to urea, a less harmful by-product that travels through the kidneys to the bladder where it leaves the body, along with other waste products, in urine. 

Hope this helps!

In Tangerine, how was Erik's role in the victory portrayed on the news that night? What was the family's reaction?

Erik’s role in the victory is the exact opposite of what usually happens. While Erik is usually portrayed as a superstar and each game’s obvious MVP, he is portrayed as a laughingstock and an object of ridicule. This is because when Erik was about to kick the football for a field goal, Antoine Thomas faked and ran for the touch down. Erik does a very funny backsplat onto the field, and even though this deception helped the team win, he’s no hero. Erik even makes it into the weekly blooper roll, and his backflop is replayed over and over again in slow motion.

Erik is enraged. Paul’s mom and dad tried to brush the incident off, but their pleas that Erik helped win the game don’t calm Erik down at all. Paul is secretly gleeful that Erik’s finally gotten his comeuppance, but can’t show it because the rest of his family is so caught up in the “Erik Fisher Football Dream,” which can never be laughed at.

How does air pressure vary with elevation?

Air pressure is caused by the air molecules above us. These molecules are held close to Earth's surface by the planet's gravity. The farther we go from the surface, the less air molecules we find. This means that as we go higher and higher from Earth's surface, we will encounter less air molecules and hence less air pressure. In other words, air pressure decreases as we go upwards from the planet's surface. We can also say that air gets "thinner" as our elevation increases. This is the reason people experience a lack of breath as they climb mountains and many climbers have to use oxygen cylinders to compensate for the reduced air quantity. We have an air pressure of about 1,000 millibars at Earth's surface and it drops by more than 70% as we reach Mount Everest (the tallest surface feature on Earth). In fact, we lose almost 50% of the air pressure within first 5.5 km of elevation.

Hope this helps. 

Two colorless solutions are mixed together. Bubbles form as the solution is stirred. Give two possible explanations for this result.

Bubbles are often an indication that a reaction is occurring.

One possible explanation is that the bubbles represent a gas that is being produced through the reaction, and released from the solution. For example, if hydrochloric acid and water were combined, the formation of hydrogen gas is a possibility, and this gas would form bubbles as it is produced. 

A second possibility is that the reaction is exothermic, and the heat being released is vaporizing molecules that would otherwise remain in the gas phase of the reaction. For example, retaining our example of hydrochloric acid in water, if this reaction is sufficiently exothermic then some of the water could be vaporized into steam, which would then be released as a gas. 

An easy way to test which of the two gases is being released would be to collect it and see if it's flammable; the hydrogen gas would burn, while the steam would not. 

What are 3 character traits for Shmuel from The Boy in the Striped Pajamas?

Shmuel is a rather timid individual. He lives in constant fear of being beaten by the Nazi guards, and he is hesitant to disobey their orders. He tells Bruno that if the guards see him sitting by the fence, he'll get in trouble. Shmuel mentions to Bruno that the Nazi guards are bad people and tells him that Lieutenant Kotler scares him. When he is given the task of washing shot glasses at Bruno's house, Bruno offers him a piece of chicken. Shmuel is hesitant to accept the chicken because he fears Lieutenant Kotler will find out. Unfortunately, Kotler accuses Shmuel of stealing from the fridge and punishes him.

Shmuel can also be described as melancholy. Bruno mentions that Shmuel typically has a look of sorrow on his face and rarely smiles. Shmuel is described as having "an enormous pair of sad eyes," and Bruno thinks that he has never seen a skinnier or "sadder boy" in his life (Boyne 107). On several occasions, Shmuel describes difficult, unhappy situations, such as leaving Poland and being bullied. He mentions to Bruno that he does not enjoy living behind the fence and wishes that he could leave.

Shmuel is also a forgiving individual. In Chapter 15, Bruno lies to Lieutenant Kotler and claims that he does not know Shmuel. Bruno also tells Kotler that he has never seen Shmuel before in his life. Shmuel ends up being beaten by Kotler because Bruno lied. After almost a week passes by, Bruno finally sees Shmuel and asks Shmuel if he will forgive him. Shmuel quickly tells Bruno that it is all right and smiles to signify that he has forgiven Bruno.

How does the geography of Romania affect its political relationships?

With central European nations like Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Austria to its northwest, the Balkan states to its southwest, Greece to its south, and Ukraine to its northeast, Romania has long been surrounded by other former Soviet satellite states, whose economies and political systems are rife with corruption and fragile at best. All of these countries, including Romania, have historically been under the sway of Russia, and before that, the Austria-Hungarian Empire. Romania, like Poland to its north, suffered immensely under brutal puppet-dictatorships imposed by the USSR, and to this day, like its northern counterparts, Romania cannot escape the economic and geographic reality of being in both Russia and Turkey's shadow.

Because of its proximity to and reliance on trade with Russia and Turkey, as well as the Balkan states, Romania cannot too wholeheartedly embrace western political influences without causing Russia and Turkey to become alarmed. Romanians know all too well the danger of angering Russia or making the Russian government worry about where Romania's allegiances really lie. Look at what has happened to Ukraine and Croatia when those countries have tried to forge stronger ties with the west: Russian invasion.

Although Romania is not landlocked like Serbia or Hungary (it borders the Black Sea on its southeastern coast), the Black Sea itself is dominated by Russia, Ukraine, and Turkey, and Romania has no direct access to the Atlantic Ocean. So by necessity, Romania must stay on good terms with its powerful neighbors to the east. That said, Romania is currently trying to wean itself off Russian oil and natural gas. If Romania and its neighbors in eastern Europe (Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria) can accomplish that goal, then in theory, Romania can become more independent from Putin's Russia, and more able to chart its own political course with regard to foreign relations.

Still, Romania will always have to stay on good terms with Turkey, which is becoming harder to do as the migrant crisis stemming from the Syrian Civil War drags on. Also of concern is the increasingly militaristic government of Turkey led by prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğa. As Turkey continues to assert itself and demand concessions from the European Union, Putin’s Russia remains unpredictable and aggressive. This ensures that Romania’s balancing act between pleasing the West and the East will continue to be particularly difficult.

Why is Equality afraid of the Uncharted Forest in Anthem?

In Chapter II of Anthem, we see our first description of the Uncharted Forest. The forest is outside the city and a place of the unknown. Equality is told by his society that it is a dangerous place to go, with wild beasts and “fearful secrets.” Equality also knows that anyone who ventures into the forest never comes back. The Uncharted Forest is a symbol of the fear Equality’s society perpetuates about the world in the past before a Great War destroyed an “evil” society. The myths and rumors that surround the Uncharted Forest are used as a scare tactic to keep the populace of the city afraid to venture out or rebel against the collective government. Equality’s curiosity keeps him looking towards the forest (especially after meeting Liberty) because he knows it may hold secrets to the society of the past that had electricity and other modern technology. At the end of the novel, Equality escapes to the forest, meets up with Liberty, and finds his identity in nature and through the books he reads in the house in the Uncharted Forest.

Lakunle insults Sidi at one point of the play. What does he say to her?

Early on in the play, Lakunle is having a conversation with Sidi and attempting to convince her to marry him. Sidi is reluctant and insists that Lakunle pay the bride-price like all men in the village are required to do. Lakunle tells Sidi that he thinks paying the bride-price is nonsense and calls the tradition a "savage custom." Lakunle tries to explain to Sidi that he wishes to marry her because he seeks a life partner and not because of her abilities to cook, clean, and fetch water. Sidi is resolute and maintains that she will not marry Lakunle unless he pays the bride-price. Lakunle offers her an opportunity to become a "modern wife," and gives her a kiss. Sidi backs away and tells Lakunle that the way he licks her lips is an unhealthy, unclean custom. Lakunle then insults Sidi by calling her a "bush-girl," an "uncivilized and primitive---bush-girl!" (Soyinka 9).

Who is the ruler of Berlin?

The city of Berlin does not technically have a ruler in the sense that one person control over everything that happens there. The nation of Germany is a federal parliamentary republic, meaning that, though they have a president, there are many other people involved in the decision-making process. Germany is a representative democratic republic, meaning German citizens vote for people to represent them in government. The current president of Germany is Joachim Gauck, and he lives and works in the capital city of Berlin. 

Perhaps the person with the most say over what happens in Berlin, or at least the person of highest authority in decision-making for Berlin, is the current mayor Michael Muller. 

In Germany, both the positions of mayor and president are primarily representative roles with the power to approve or deny certain actions, but they may also be overruled by the Berlin Senate or the Bundestag. 

Please provide a quote about Macbeth's over-ambitiousness.

At the beginning of Act 1, Scene 7, Macbeth delivers a soliloquy in which he reveals the great many reasons he has to not kill Duncan: the violence could come back on him somehow, Duncan is his friend, his king, his kinsman, and his guest.  It is Macbeth's job to shut the door against the person who would harm Duncan, not do the harm himself, he says.  More than this, Duncan is a really just king and a genuinely good person; he seems like the last person in the world one would want to murder.  In short, Macbeth has myriad reasons why he should not kill his king, and only one reason to go through with it: his ambition.  He says, "I have no spur / To prick the sides of my intent, but only / Vaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itself / And falls on th' other" (1.7.25-28).  In other words, his ambition is the only "spur" he has to push him to go on with the plan to kill the king, but he recognizes that ambition can make people behave rashly.

What kind of relationship does Montresor have with the people who take care of his home? What does this reveal about him?

In Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado,” the narrator, Montresor, is a shrewd and calculating man. An example of this can be seen in his manipulation of his servants on the night he is putting into action his plan to gain revenge against his perceived enemy.

Montresor seems to be a person of some wealth and standing. And even though he alludes to his family perhaps not being as great or having the same standing it once did, he still appears to have servants who work for him. In order to make sure that his attendants will not spoil his plot for revenge against Fortunato, Montresor manipulates them into being absent from his house:

There were no attendants at home; they had absconded to make merry in honour of the time. I had told them that I should not return until the morning, and had given them explicit orders not to stir from the house. These orders were sufficient, I well knew, to insure their immediate disappearance, one and all, as soon as my back was turned.

In telling them he will be gone and ordering them to remain in the house, despite the ongoing carnival, he knows that they will all disobey him and leave. He understands that they will believe that, in his absence, they can get away with not following his directions. He views them as pieces to be played in his game, and he uses what he knows about their nature to further his plan.

This is an example of the essence of Montresor. He sees his attendants as people whom he can manipulate and control, and he does so to his benefit. He also sees them as a kind of minor antagonist to his plans, a problem to be eliminated.