In Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451, why was everything depicted as green in Montag's flashback/memory of the moment he met Faber?

The color green plays an interesting role in Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451, a science fiction novel about a futuristic dystopian society in which books are burned because of the knowledge they contain. Much has been made about the use of the color white in this and in other novels, such as F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby. White is associated with purity and innocence, so it is often used to convey or emphasize those character traits in literature. Such is the case with Bradbury’s story, in which two of the more virtuous characters, Clarisse and Faber, are associated with the color white. Green, however, is a little trickier. It is used to represent both good and evil. The Mechanical Hound, for instance, has “eyes all green flame,” and its appearance is foreshadowed by “a faint drift of greenish luminescent smoke.” Yet, green is also associated in Fahrenheit 451 with nature—hardly a novel idea, but one put to good effect in the scenario depicted in Bradbury’s novel.  In the section of the novel when Montag recalls his first encounter with the former professor Faber, the color green is an integral component of his memory:

“Hold on. He shut his eyes. Yes, of course. Again he found himself thinking of the green park a year ago. The thought had been with him many times recently, but now he remembered how it was that day in the city park when he had seen that old man in the black suit hide something, quickly in his coat . ... The old man leapt up as if to run. And Montag said, "Wait ! " "I haven't done anything! " cried the old man trembling. "No one said you did." They had sat in the green soft light without saying a word for a moment, and then Montag talked about the weather, and then the old man responded with a pale voice. It was a strange quiet meeting. The old man admitted to being a retired English professor who had been thrown out upon the world forty years ago when the last liberal arts college shut for lack of students and patronage.”

Montag associates in his mind the color green with his meeting Faber for the first time because the encounter occurred in a park, with green grass and trees. The logical association of green with nature is no accident, and Bradbury returns to that theme later, when Montag meets Granger and the other defectors from this dystopian society who have committed themselves to memorizing the contents of books. Describing the manner with which each of these individuals has dedicated himself to memorizing books so that the knowledge they contained can be reapplied in whatever new society replaces the one being destroyed by war, Granger states that “[s]ome of us live in small towns. Chapter One of Thoreau's Walden in Green River, Chapter Two in Willow Farm, Maine.” Granger’s point is that each of these individuals has not only memorized the contents of the books, but has immersed himself psychologically into the essence of the books, and few authors personified man’s relationship to his surroundings as eloquently as Henry David Thoreau. It is, similarly, Granger who expresses the hope for a post-war world in which nature can once again be permitted to blossom, noting how his grandfather had hoped that, in the aftermath of World War II, “that some day our cities would open up and let the green and the land and the wilderness in more, to remind people that we're allotted a little space on earth and that we survive in that wilderness that can take back what it has given, as easily as blowing its breath on us or sending the sea to tell us we are not so big.”

Montag associates the color green with his initial encounter with Faber because that encounter occurred in a green park, and because green represents the hope for a better future—one in which technology is contained and nature is not.

What is the significance of Scout being a Ham in the school play?

I wouldn’t say that Scout’s ham costume has special significance. Though To Kill A Mockingbird is a novel filled with symbols, Scout’s ham costume doesn’t have the same emotional resonance for the reader as the mockingbird, a representation of senselessly violated innocence, or Boo Radley, a symbol of Scout’s growing maturity.

I would point you in the direction of juxtaposition, not symbolism. Juxtaposition occurs when an author closely sequences two objects, events, people, or ideas in order to emphasize their contrasting qualities and heighten dramatic tension.

The chapters before the school’s Halloween festival are filled with serious drama: the guilty verdict, Tom Robinson’s death, and Bob Ewell’s threats against Atticus. Jem and Scout are experiencing the most emotional moments in their lives; both feel betrayed by the world and anxious about the future. In contrast, Harper Lee draws out the comedic aspects of the Finch children’s life during the Halloween festival scenes. They are still children, after all, and sometimes concern about an embarrassing costume or the possibility of being seen together with a younger sibling can take precedence over even the most serious concerns. Consequently, this chapter is filled with slapstick humor. Scout’s ham costume is ridiculous, and when she’s forced to make a grandiose entrance by her overly enthusiastic teacher, things quickly fall apart. It’s a brief return to childhood after harrowing events. It reminds us of the scenes before Tom Robinson's trial, when Scout still had a complete child's view of the world. 

However, the return to innocence doesn’t last for long. These silly and innocent events are followed by Bob Ewell’s attack. Scout’s ham costume makes it hard for her to fight back, and she almost witnesses Jem’s death. Consequently, what was fun and silly turns deadly because of Bob Ewell’s thirst for revenge.

Who is the main character of the story "Where Have You Gone, Charming Billy" by Tim O'Brien?

The main character of the Tim O'Brien short story "Where Have You Gone, Charming Billy" is Private First Class Paul Berlin. On the first day he is fighting in Vietnam, he watches Billy Boy Watkins step on a mine and lose his foot. Though his wound is not fatal, Billy Boy becomes so agitated about dying that he has a heart attack that kills him.

Thoughts about Billy Boy and the constant refrain "Where have you gone, Billy Boy, Billy Boy, Oh, where have you gone, charming Billy?" keep going through Paul's mind as he recounts the day in a stream-of-consciousness style. Paul is able to get through the day by imagining that his platoon will reach the refreshing sea the next day, and then he imagines what his father would say to him. When he lies down next to a soldier named Toby, Paul dissolves into nervous giggling that he can't stop as a reaction to the day's events. He is filled with dread and fear about the war. He tells himself that he will later regard the whole story of Billy Boy as a joke. However, as the story ends, Paul continues to be afraid, even when he sees the sea. 

According to the opening paragraph,what keeps sinners from falling to hell?

In his sermon, Edwards makes it clear that the will of God keeps sinners from falling into hell.

The opening paragraph of the sermon argues that divine judgment determines whether an individual reaches heaven or hell.  Edwards points to how "the vengeance of God" played this role with "wicked unbelieving Israelites."  In Edwards's mind, when God feels that human beings have engaged in transgression, his anger determines an individual's fate. In order to receive such works, Edwards argues that humans must endear themselves to the divine. 

The sermon's first paragraph is deliberate in the way it captures the reader's attention.  Edwards contrasts God's wrath with images of "God's wonderful works."  No matter what human beings do, Edwards is emphatic that individuals will "slide" or ascend based on what God decides. In the sermon's opening paragraph, Edwards creates a vision of God that is omnipotent.  He sees and knows all. 

It is the will of God that keeps sinners from entering hell.  The opening of the sermon is blunt in who holds the power in the relationship between people and the divine.  Edwards wants to change the minds of those who believe that they control their fate.  To these people, Edwards directly argues that God's power keeps people from sliding into hell or condemned to it.

Describe a metaphor from the poem "New Face" by Alice Walker

The poem New Face by Alice Walker describes the speaker's reactions to falling in love. The speaker describes overcoming their worry about falling in love, instead choosing to fully honor, understand, and appreciate the experience. There are multiple metaphors in the poem, but one example is the following:

The source appears to be
some inexhaustible spring

In the context of the poem, this is assessing the source of the "rush of feelings" which the speaker feels as they are beginning to fall in love. Describing the source of emotion as a spring is a metaphor because it is a comparison between two unlike things that is not literally true. The speaker describes the spring as "inexhaustible," conveying that the supply of love and source of emotions as infinite. Additionally, the title of the poem is a metaphor, as shown in the poem's final lines:

The new face i turn up to you
no one else on earth
has ever
seen

The development of new feelings and love for another person does not literally make one's face different, but the speaker utilizes metaphor to describe how falling in love can change someone. The "new face" is the result of new feelings, and the result of the experience and emotion of falling in love.

Discuss the role of PowerPoint in a presentation.

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Where was Manzanar located?

The site of the Manzanar War Relocation Center (a camp where Americans of Japanese descent from the West Coast were interned during WWII) is in the Owens Valley in California.  This is a valley between Sequoia National Park and Death Valley National Park, in the eastern part of California not far from the Nevada border.  The camp is roughly due east of Fresno and is about 230 miles northeast of Los Angeles.

The Owens Valley is very sparsely populated.  In the early 1900s, it was a thriving agricultural center (“Manzanar” means “apple orchard” in Spanish).  However, agriculture in the valley soon died out as the city of Los Angeles started buying up the rights to the water in the valley.  The city bought the rights so as to be able to run an aqueduct to bring the water to the city.  Because of this, the valley lost most of its population.  The remote location of the valley made it seem like an ideal place to house Americans of Japanese descent during the war since many Americans wanted them to be in out-of-the-way places where they could not possibly harm the war effort by providing help to Japan.

You can find directions to the site of the camp at this link.

Who were the political figures involved in the Cold War?

The Cold War dominated world politics from about 1947 until about 1991.  This means that practically every important figure in world politics during this time was in some way involved in the Cold War.  In this answer, I will list some of the most important figures of the Cold War era.

We can start by mentioning every US president who served during this time.  This would include Harry S. Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, and George Bush.  All of these men were very important in the Cold War.  Other important American leaders of the era were George Marshall, who proposed the Marshall Plan, John Foster Dulles, who was Eisenhower’s Secretary of State, Robert McNamara, who was Secretary of Defense under Kennedy and Johnson, and Henry Kissinger, who was National Security Advisor and Secretary of State for Nixon and Ford.

We can then list leaders of the Soviet Union.  These included Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, Konstantin Chernenko, and Mikhail Gorbachev.  Of these men, Andropov and Chernenko are less important because they were not in power for very long.

Although the US and the USSR were the most important countries in the Cold War, there were important leaders from other countries as well.  A list of these leaders could include

•         Mao Zedong, leader of communist China


•         Kim Il-Sung, leader of North Korea during the Korean War


•         Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Vietnamese communists


•         Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egyptian leader who tried to play the superpowers off against one another.


•         Charles de Gaulle, who pulled France out of NATO and tried to be independent of US power


•         Fidel Castro leader of communist Cuba


•         Marshal Tito, who tried to have Yugoslavia be communist, but independent of Moscow

There are many other people who could be included on this list.  We could talk about Winston Churchill, Konrad Adenauer, Willy Brandt, Syngman Rhee, Ngo Dinh Diem, Jawaharlal Nehru, Kwame Nkrumah, Patrice Lumumba, Jonas Savimbi, and many others.  As I said, anyone who was at all important in world politics during this time was involved in the Cold War in some way. 

What is rehabilitation for cancer?

Cancers treated: All types of cancers beginning before, during, or after cancer treatment

Why performed: The specific goals of rehabilitation are different for each individual. In general, the goal of rehabilitation is to allow the individual to function as fully and independently as possible. The rehabilitation team will include different allied health professionals depending on the goals and needs of the individual. Often the rehabilitation team will include many health professionals, such as a physical therapist, an occupational therapist, a rehabilitation nurse, a psychologist or psychiatrist, a nutritionist or registered dietician, the individual’s physician or oncologist, pain management specialists, a case manager, and home health workers.

The rehabilitation team will work together with the patient and the patient’s family and loved ones to help the patient regain as high a degree of functioning as possible. The specific activities included in the rehabilitation plan usually comprise dressing, bathing, cooking, eating, and other activities of daily living. Some individuals may receive help recovering the ability to drive, take public transportation, or other aspects of mobility.

For individuals whose job skills were affected by cancer or cancer treatment, regaining the skills necessary to return to a job is usually considered a high priority. An occupational therapist or other member of the rehabilitation team may help the individual determine what skills are required, work to improve those skills, and seek ways to modify the employment environment so that the individual may return to work sooner.

The individual may have goals in addition to those necessary for return to employment or for daily living. Many recreation and leisure activities that were formerly pleasurable may become difficult or impossible because of cancer or cancer treatment. Rehabilitation therapists listen to the patient to address additional goals, such as the ability to go camping or sailing, play sports, or play music.

Patient preparation: Before beginning to meet with a rehabilitation specialist, it may help the patient to consider specific goals for rehabilitation. Making a list of activities or skills on which the patient would like to work can help the rehabilitation therapist look beyond the activities of daily living to other activities important in that individual’s life. Goals can be very specific, such as being able to knit or type again, or more general, such as being able to play with children or grandchildren.

The patient preparation required before the individual rehabilitation sessions will vary depending on the type of therapy. The rehabilitation specialist will give the patient specific information about what steps to take before a session, which may include things such as doing gentle stretches to warm up or even mentally preparing to meet the challenges that rehabilitation therapy provides.

Steps of the procedure: The steps of rehabilitation are very individualized. They depend on the type of therapy that is being done and on the specific needs and goals of the patient. Rehabilitation therapy often breaks down the goal activity or skill into smaller parts or steps and then works on one step at a time. For example, an occupational therapist who is helping a cancer patient regain the ability to feed himself may work on the action of bringing the food to the mouth as one activity, the act of using a spoon or fork to scoop food as a separate activity, and the act of cutting food as yet a separate skill. As these different aspects of the skill of feeding oneself are mastered, they can be combined into more complex sequences of actions.

Another way of approaching rehabilitation can be from the standpoint of increasing the day-to-day abilities of the patient in the affected areas. In this case, the rehabilitation therapist might focus on getting food from the plate or bowl and into the mouth using the hands and then slowly add skills, such as beginning to help the patient use a spoon, then a fork, and then working on cutting food.

Rehabilitation also often helps to identify assistive devices that individuals can use to help them accomplish various tasks. In some cases, these devices are only necessary for a short time; in other cases, they will be used by the individual for the rest of his or her life. For instance, a rehabilitation specialist may help an individual regain the ability to walk using a walker, or may help an individual who had a leg amputated master the use of a prosthetic leg.

After the procedure: The steps after rehabilitation will vary depending on the type of therapy performed. After therapy that involves physical activity or exercise, a series of stretches and cooldown activities is usually performed. Often the rehabilitation therapist will assign the individual exercises or activities to practice each day, sometimes several times a day, before the next session. This approach can help to ensure that the progress made during the session is maintained until the next session. The patient’s family members or caregivers may be shown how to help the individual complete these exercises.

Rehabilitation therapy may be continued for weeks, months, or even longer. When the therapy has ended, the therapist may give the patient a list or set of exercises or activities to continue to do to help keep up the skills that were gained during therapy, or to help the patient continue to make improvements.

Risks: The risks associated with rehabilitation are generally mild but are different for different forms of rehabilitation therapy. There are some risks that during physical therapy individuals may strain or pull muscles, or otherwise overextend or injure themselves, especially if the proper stretching and warmup routine is not followed before the therapy. Risks of occupational therapy and other forms of rehabilitation therapy that involve the patient working to perform certain actions or movements, such as the movements of dressing or bathing, may also result in strain or injury if the individual pushes too hard to accomplish the task before his or her body is ready. An individual working on regaining the ability to walk may fall if not carefully monitored. Generally, these and other physical risks from rehabilitation are very low if the therapy is overseen by a qualified health professional.

There may also be some emotional risks relating to rehabilitation. The issues discussed with a psychologist or psychiatrist can often be painful or upsetting as they help the individual with cancer work through the fear, uncertainty, and feelings of hopelessness that often accompany cancer diagnosis and treatment. Although discussions with a psychologist or therapist can often be very upsetting, they can usually help the patient deal effectively with these new emotions.

Results: The results of rehabilitation are usually very positive. With consistent effort by the patient and the rehabilitation team, many skills and abilities that have been lost can be regained. Many people can return to jobs and activities in which they would not have been able to participate without rehabilitation. Psychological and emotional rehabilitation is usually effective at helping the individual regain a positive outlook and overcome the fear and unhappiness often associated with cancer and cancer treatment. A comprehensive rehabilitation plan that involves many different allied health professionals, as well as family, friends, or other caregivers, is often especially effective.

It is important for the rehabilitation team to help the patient develop a realistic view of the amount of work required by rehabilitation, the length of time that it will take to reach rehabilitation goals, and what rehabilitation goals are likely to be realistic overall. Having realistic expectations can help reduce frustrations and negative feelings that may occur during the rehabilitation process as hurdles are met and overcome.

Alfano, Catherine M., et al. "Cancer Survivorship and Cancer Rehabilitation: Revitalizing the Link." Journal of Clinical Oncology 30.9 (2012): 904–6. Print.

Davis, Carol M., ed. Complementary Therapies in Rehabilitation: Evidence for Efficacy in Therapy, Prevention, and Wellness. 3rd ed. Thorofare: Slack, 2009. Print.

Galvin, Jan C., and Scherer Marcia J., eds. Evaluating, Selecting, and Using Appropriate Assistive Technology. 1996. Austin: Pro-Ed, 2004. Print.

Macky, Hazel, and Susan Nancarrow, eds. Enabling Independence: A Guide for Rehabilitation Workers. Malden: Blackwell, 2006. Print.

Shin, Ki Y. Cancer: Rehabilitation Medicine Quick Reference. New York: Demos, 2014. Print.

Silver, Julie K., Jennifer Baima, and R. Samuel Mayer. "Impairment-Driven Cancer Rehabilitation: An Essential Component of Quality Care and Survivorship." CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 63.5 (2013): 295–317. Print.

Stidwill, Howard. Exercise Therapy and the Cancer Patient: A Guide for Health Care Professionals and Their Patients. Belgium: Champion, 2005. Print.

What is an oncology clinical nurse specialist?

Subspecialties: The oncology nurse clinical specialist may choose to specialize in a particular cancer practice working with a selected population of patients. Examples of specialties include medical hematology oncology, hematology oncology, outpatient radiation, outpatient hematology oncology, outpatient pediatric oncology, and palliative care.

Cancers treated: Depends on area of specialty

Training and certification: The oncology clinical nurse specialist completes a bachelor’s degree in nursing and a master’s degree in nursing with appropriate clinical practicum from an accredited graduate nursing program. Education programs will vary, but the master’s degree generally takes about two years to complete and requires at least five hundred hours of clinical practicum. Required courses for a master’s degree vary from school to school. Courses included in these programs are advanced physiology and cancer pathophysiology, pharmacology, cancer genomics, epidemiology, disease and symptom management, palliative care, nursing research, nursing and medical ethics, public policy, leadership, health care financing, health program planning and evaluation, technology use, and advanced nursing concepts. Practicum hours are usually accrued in the nurse’s chosen specialty.

Additional training and skills necessary to effectively practice in the role of oncology clinical nurse specialist include crisis management, in-depth knowledge of the chosen clinical cancer specialty, maturity to take responsibility for patients’ lives, understanding of medical ethics, teaching proficiency, and expertise in interpersonal relations to work with the patient, caregivers, and multidisciplinary health care team. Oncology clinical nurse specialists must have valid nursing licenses issued by the boards of nursing in their states.

In some states, oncology clinical nurse specialists must also receive certification by successfully completing examinations in their specialty. In other states, attaining certification status is voluntary. Proficiency is validated through examination based on predetermined standards and given by a nongovernment agency. The Oncology Nursing Certification Corporation provides several different certifications for nurses working with cancer patients. The Advanced Oncology Certified Clinical Nurse Specialist (AOCNS) certification examination is available to professional nurses who hold a current, active license that is nonrestricted, have completed a master’s degree or higher from an accredited school of nursing, and have completed a minimum of five hundred hours of supervised clinical practice in oncology nursing. Documentation of the supervised clinical practicum hours is required and verified before certification is granted. AOCNS certification is valid for four years. The AOCNS nurse can renew certification three ways: combining practice hours and professional development points, combining practice hours and a successful test result, or combining professional development points and a successful test result.

Services and procedures performed: Oncology clinical nurse specialists can work in a variety of settings, including hospitals (acute care), clinics, long-term care or elder care homes, home care or hospice agencies, and private and joint practices. They can also work as consultants. The oncology clinical nurse specialist recognizes and values the expanding and evolving nature of cancer care and remains current with complex services, procedures, and treatments. The services and procedures performed depend on the setting and function of the nurse’s specific role.

Some oncology clinical nurse specialists work as clinicians and provide direct care for patients and caregivers. They often work alongside other health care professionals such as physicians, nurses, and therapists to plan and evaluate patient care. These nurse specialists schedule and coordinate diagnostic and therapeutic procedures or tests for oncology patients. They will monitor the test results and revise the cancer patient’s care plan based on individual and changing needs. At a cancer care clinic or oncology hospital unit, the oncology clinical nurse specialist may perform the initial admission assessment for new patients and develop the plan of care. This nurse will monitor the plan of care and make adjustments as indicated for the individual cancer patient. The nurse assists with discharge planning to include referrals for other community resources or establish follow-up appointments to physicians’ offices or cancer care clinics.

Oncology clinical nurse specialists often function as teachers. In clinical settings, these nurses keep abreast of current research and new therapies. They use their expanded knowledge of cancer and cancer treatment to teach new concepts or treatment modalities to staff members and members of the multidisciplinary health care planning team. In the hospital cancer unit or cancer care clinic, oncology clinical nurse specialists help assess current staff education, develop new educational strategies, coordinate educational agendas, and revise teaching programs. Educational programs are provided as in-service programs or as clinical practicums. They serve as advisers to staff and other professionals. The goal of this education is to organize and implement an educational strategy that trains professional caregivers to provide the best possible cancer care for patients and their caregivers.

Cancer care education is critical for the cancer patient, family, and caregivers to live life to the fullest. The oncology clinical nurse specialist builds a relationship with the cancer patient and caregivers and provides individualized patient teaching. Cancer patients need accurate and up-to-date information about their disease and treatment options to make decisions about their care. The highly educated and informed oncology clinical nurse specialist is often the person who spends time with the patient and family, teaching them necessary components of self-care and disease management. Even after discharge from the hospital cancer care unit, the patient and caregivers may contact the oncology clinical nurse specialist with questions and concerns. The positive relationship developed during hospitalization often carries over to the home setting as the oncology clinical nurse specialist fills the role of consultant and educator.

Administrative functions are sometimes part of the services delivered by oncology clinical nurse specialists. They monitor the medication regimen of the cancer patient and suggest changes when needed for improved patient outcomes. Sometimes they manage the research protocol as primary investigator for grants and clinical studies. Oncology clinical nurse specialists are stewards in fiscal management of resources by keeping an eye on cancer care costs, noting where services can be delivered more efficiently.

Related specialties and subspecialties: Oncology clinical nurse specialists can work in a number of subspecialties depending on their interests and the positions available in the nurses’ area. Roles are evolving and diverse, as the oncology nurse clinical specialist contributes many skills to the health care team. Some assume administrative roles and perform in high levels of leadership within the cancer care settings. For example, oncology clinical nurse specialists can become nurse managers over specialized hospital oncology units or serve as directors of community cancer care centers, or they might become health care administrators for managed care or insurance companies and consult with key decision makers about covered services for cancer care patients.

Oncology clinical nurse specialists can pursue further education and receive a doctorate degree in various academic fields. One example is the oncology clinical nurse specialist who completes a doctorate and enters the field of cancer research. Another nurse might earn a doctorate in nursing science or a doctorate in education and join a university graduate faculty to teach others to become oncology clinical nurse specialists. As faculty, these nurses can work as consultants and mentors to undergraduate nursing students to help them become proficient in cancer care. Some pursue additional education to function in the dual role of oncology clinical nurse specialist and nurse practitioner. Still others assume an entrepreneurial spirit and use their knowledge and skills in creative and innovative private and joint practice.

Bibliography

Blaseg, Karyl D., Penny Daugherty, and Kathleen A. Gamblin. Oncology Nurse Navigation: Delivering Patient-Centered Care across the Continuum. Pittsburgh: Oncology Nursing Society, 2014. Print.

Camp-Sorrell, Dawn, and Rebecca A. Hawkins. Clinical Manual for the Oncology Advanced Practice Nurse. 3rd ed. Pittsburgh: Oncology Nursing Society, 2014. Print.

Carper, E., and M. Hass. “Advanced Practice Nursing in Radiation Oncology." Seminars in Oncology Nursing 22.4 (2006): 203–11. Print.

Skilbeck, J., and S. Payne. “Emotional Support and the Role of Clinical Nurse Specialists in Palliative Care.” Journal of Advanced Nursing 43.2 (2003): 521–30. Print.

Yarbro, Connie Henke, Debra Wujcik, and Barbara Holmes Gobel. Cancer Nursing: Principles and Practice. 7th ed. Sudbury: Jones, 2011. Digital file.

Yarbro, Connie Henke, Debra Wujcik, and Barbara Holmes Gobel. Oncology Nursing Review. 5th ed. Sudbury: Jones, 2012. Print.

Zuzelo, Patti R. Clinical Nurse Specialist Handbook. Sudbury: Jones, 2007. Print.

Organizations and Professional Societies

National Association of Clinical Nurse Specialists
.


http://www.nacns.org, 100 N. 20th Street, 4th floor, Philadelphia, PA 19103.

Oncology Nursing Certification Corporation
.


http://www.oncc.org, 125 Enterprise Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15275.

Oncology Nursing Society
.


http://www.ons.org, 125 Enterprise Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15275.

A newspaper delivery boy throws a newspaper onto a balcony 1.25 m above the height of his hand when he releases the paper. Given that he throws the...

This is a numerical of projectile motion. Here, the initial velocity, u = 25 m/s and `theta`  = 35 degrees.

a) Maximum height achieved can be calculated by the following equation:

`H = (u^2sin^2theta)/(2g) = (25^2 xx sin^2(35))/(2 xx 9.81) = 10.48 m`

Thus, the newspaper achieves a maximum height of 10.48 m.

b) At the point of maximum height, the y-component of velocity is 0 m/s, while the horizontal velocity stays the same. Thus, the velocity at maximum height is same as the horizontal velocity component.

The horizontal component of velocity = u cos(35) = 25 x cos(35) = 20.48 m/s.

c) In this type of motion, the only acceleration acting on the object is the acceleration due to gravity, g. And it is acting in the downward direction always. 

d) The vertical distance traveled by the newspaper is 1.25 m (height of balcony above his hand) and is given as:

y = u_y t -1/2 gt^2

where, u_y is the vertical component of velocity = u sin (35) = 14.34 m/s

substituting all the values, we get: t = 0.09 s and 2.83 s.

The two times correspond to newspaper reaching a height of 1.25 m on its way to maximum height and on its way down. 

The time of flight = 2.83 s (as the other time is too small to need the type of velocity we have here).

e) The horizontal distance traveled by the newspaper is

x = 20.48 x 2.83 = 57.96 m

Hope this helps. 

Where would you be likely to find a market economy?

A market economy is an economic system that is dictated by the principle of supply and demand. These systems are commonly found in capitalist societies like the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and so on.

In simple terms, a "market economy" refers to a system in which financial aspects of the economy like investment, exports/imports, and the price of goods is determined by the availability of the product or service and the public's desire for that product. For example, if apples are very popular (demand), someone might invest lots of money in an apple orchard. This changes, however, depending on the availability of apples (supply). Apples could be very popular, which means people buy lots of them, but if they are also widely available, the price will have to be competitive or people will just go buy them from someone else.

A real-world example of this are things that fall into the category of technology. Microsoft's XBox, for example, is a very popular product that is in high demand. Because so many people want an XBox and Microsoft is the only company that can make it, they can set the price relatively high because consumers can't get one from anyone else. When supply of this product is relatively low, like it might be around Christmas, the price can jump even higher because the demand is higher. Adding a similar product like the Playstation into the equation, demand for the XBox drops because someone is now offering an alternative. This is critically important because the price of the XBox is now tied to the price of its competitor, Playstation.

Some argue that England’s monarchy, the inheritance of which is simply an accident of birth, may need to end. (See the Guardian, 22 April 2011)...

England does not need a hereditary monarch for its government to work. But the royal monarchy was first established in 871 with King Alfred the Great, and traditions like that are hard to leave behind, even in a modern democratic state. To understand why English democracy works with a reigning monarch, it is necessary to grasp the kind of government that rules the United Kingdom, i.e., England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and the Commonwealth of Nations. Two peculiar aspects of government are in play in the English system of governance: constitutional monarchy and parliamentary sovereignty.

The power of the monarchy in the United Kingdom is limited by the various documents that make up its constitutional principles. There are some things that are not written, parliamentary conventions and Royal Prerogatives to name two, but they are still considered part of the British Constitution. The English Bill of Rights (1689) both limits the power of the King and/or Queen by its content and establishes the king making power of parliament by its very existence. As a result of the 1688 Glorious Revolution in which James II was forced to abdicate the throne, England’s Parliament presented William of Orange and Mary (King James II’s protestant daughter) with the document before they could be crowned King and Queen of England. Acceptance of the Bill of Rights established the monarchy of William and Mary, but also destroyed the idea that Kings and Queens rule by divine right. Instead elected members of Parliament had the authority to deny the throne to any who would deny the established rights of Englishmen. The text of the document says:

Upon which their said Majesties [William and Mary] did accept the crown and royal dignity of the kingdoms of England, France, and Ireland, and the dominions thereunto belonging, according to the resolution and desire of the said lords and commons [Parliament] contained in the said declaration.

This 1689 act of Parliament constitutionalized Britain's limited monarchy and parliamentary supremacy. The result: England’s monarch, presently Queen Elizabeth II, is the head of state whereas the prime minister, currently David Cameron whom she officially appointed after his election by Parliament, is head of the government. As head of state, the monarch maintains Royal Prerogative — certain authority, privileges, and immunities that were long established powers of the monarch — but these actions are usually carried out with the support of members of the government, i.e., Parliament. 

Parliamentary sovereignty was part and parcel to the 1689 English Bill of Rights. A parliament with absolute sovereignty is one whose power is not subordinate to or limited by any other government body — neither an executive nor a judiciary.  Therefore, parliamentary supremacy means that Parliament decides what the law is, and once enacted, no one can dispute the law. The House of Lords, the upper house of parliament, is the highest court of appeals in England’s judicial system. (This does not mean that a person injured by enforcement of an Act of Parliament has no recourse, but that is the subject of a different question.)

The monarch of England is the head of the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth of Nations which includes over 2 billion people around the world. As head of state the monarch’s mission is to promote “democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace” (British Royal Family History) In her 64 year reign, Queen Elizabeth II “has had a total of 140 prime ministers” in her realm. Since the constitutional monarchy has limited powers, and the parliaments have vast powers in their respective governments, it is safe to say the United Kingdom and Commonwealth of Nations certainly do not need a monarch, but all Commonwealth Nations must accept Queen Elizabeth II, the current monarch, as head of the Commonwealth.

Members of the Commonwealth of nations choose to become members. “If,” as Timothy Garton Ash at the Guardian points out, “the existence of a constitutional monarchy seriously distorted the democratic process, made impossible an open society with life chances for all, and held the country back in a stuffy past of hierarchy and privilege,” the argument to depose the monarchy might be legitimate. It does not appear that the current monarch stifles democracy in the U.K. or any of the 53 member states in the Commonwealth of Nations. But the future may tell a different story. 

What is rifampin? How does it interact with other drugs?

Vitamin D

Effect: Supplementation Possibly Helpful

Rifampin, used with the antibiotic drug isoniazid in treating tuberculosis, might interfere with the metabolism of vitamin D. Although it is not clear whether this interaction actually causes vitamin D deficiency, one should be sure to consume adequate amounts of vitamin D on general principle.

Bibliography

Bueno-Sánchez, J. G., et al. “Anti-tubercular Activity of Eleven Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Occurring in Colombia.” Biomedica 29, no. 1 (2009): 51-60.

Lalloo, U. G., and A. Ambaram. “New Antituberculous Drugs in Development.” Current HIV/AIDS Reports 7, no. 3 (2010): 143-151.

What is hepatitis E?

Definition

Hepatitis E is a viral liver infection transmitted through the intestinal
tract. Hepatitis E, which is an acute, short-lived illness that can sometimes
cause liver failure, is more common in regions of the world that lack clean water
and environmentally safe sanitation.

Causes

Hepatitis E is primarily spread by fecal-oral transmission. It is commonly
found in countries where human waste contaminates the water sources. Large
outbreaks have occurred in Asia and South America that have poor sanitation. In
the United States and Canada, no outbreaks have been reported, but persons
traveling to an endemic region may return infected with the hepatitis E virus
(HEV).

Risk Factors

Risk factors for hepatitis E are factors that do not seem to be a direct cause
of the disease. Hepatitis E occurs in both epidemic and
sporadic-endemic forms usually associated with contaminated drinking water. Because this disease is primarily a
result of a lack of water filtration in underdeveloped countries, there are no specific risks
associated with it. Water filtration systems are prevalent in most developed
countries, such as the United States, Canada, and China, and in the countries of
Europe. Historically, the only major waterborne epidemics have occurred in Asia
and North and West Africa.

Symptoms

The symptoms of hepatitis E include flulike symptoms, fever, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and jaundice.

Screening and Diagnosis

Cases of hepatitis E are not clinically evident from other types of acute
viral
hepatitis. Diagnoses are usually made by blood tests that
detect elevated levels of specific antibodies to hepatitis E in the body
or by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. However, these tests are
not yet widely available.

When waterborne hepatitis occurs in developing countries, especially if the
disease is more severe in pregnant women, hepatitis E should be suspected if
hepatitis
A has been excluded. If laboratory tests are not available,
epidemiologic evidence can help in establishing a diagnosis.

Treatment and Therapy

Hepatitis E is classified as a viral disease, so there is no effective
treatment of acute hepatitis. Consequently, antibiotics
are of no significance in the treatment of the viral
infection. Hepatitis E infections usually remain in the
intestinal tract, and hospitalization is generally not required. However, there
are reports of HEV damaging and destroying liver cells, so much so that the liver
cannot function. This is called fulminant liver failure, a condition that can lead
to death. Pregnant women are at a higher risk of dying from fulminant liver
failure. This increased risk is not constant with any other type of viral
hepatitis.

The majority of persons who recover from acute infection do not continue to
carry HEV and, thus, cannot pass the infection to others. No available therapy can
alter the course of acute infection. Also, there are no vaccines for hepatitis E
that have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

Prevention and Outcomes

Prevention is the most effective approach against hepatitis E. The most effective way to prevent hepatitis E is to provide and consume safe drinking water and to take precautions to use sterilized water and beverages when traveling to an endemic region.

Bibliography

Feldman, Mark, Lawrence S. Friedman, and Lawrence J. Brandt, eds. Sleisenger and Fordtran’s Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management. New ed. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2010.

Kamar, N., et al. “Hepatitis E Virus and Chronic Hepatitis in Organ-Transplant Recipients.” New England Journal of Medicine 358 (2008): 811-817.

Shrestha, M. P., et al. “Safety and Efficacy of a Recombinant Hepatitis E Vaccine.” New England Journal of Medicine 356 (2007): 895-903.

When and where does "The Lady or the Tiger?" by Frank R. Stockton take place? What evidence in the story supports your answer?

Although the author does not say, the story appears to have taken place during ancient times. The text tells us that the "semi-barbaric" king of the story held progressive ideas that were inspired by "distant Latin neighbors."

The reference to the "semi-barbaric" king is significant. First, the text tells us how the king's "barbarism had become semified." In essence, he had borrowed ideas about execution and justice from his more progressive Latin neighbors. Each and every criminal was tried in an amphitheater for crimes committed against the kingdom. Second, the "amphitheater" in the story appears to have been modeled after the Colosseum or the Flavian Amphitheater of Rome.

The text further reinforces the "semi-barbarism" (as opposed to the complete barbarism) of the king by asserting that his amphitheater had not been built to "give the people an opportunity of hearing the rhapsodies of dying gladiators, nor to enable them to view the inevitable conclusion of a conflict between religious opinions and hungry jaws, but for purposes far better adapted to widen and develop the mental energies of the people." It is well-known that the ancient Roman Colosseum played host to gladiatorial events and the executions of Christians and criminals.

So, if the king in the story is "semi-barbaric" because of these factors, we can accept the possibility that he could very well have belonged to one of the barbaric tribes that invaded Rome on many occasions. History tells us that the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Burgundians, Vandals, Franks, and Lombards (barbarian Germanic tribes) as well as the Huns (a barbaric warrior race from Asia) were instrumental in the fragmentation of the Roman empire.

Either way, the story could conceivably have taken place during the powerful era of the Roman Empire and in a region surrounding the western Roman Empire.

Why is Bob Ewell an alcoholic?

Bob is the novel's antagonist and is known as the most despicable individual in Maycomb County. Bob Ewell has several children, is unemployed, and lives behind the towns' garbage dump. The root of Bob's drinking problem is a combination of being genetically predisposed to alcoholism and suffering immense emotional strain following the death of his wife. In Chapter 9, Atticus is having a discussion with his brother about the trial. Atticus asks Uncle Jack if he is familiar with the Ewells, and Jack describes them accurately. Atticus says, "You're a generation off. The present ones are the same, though" (Lee 117). This information, coupled with the fact that Bob's parents named him Robert E. Lee Ewell, after the Confederate General, suggests that Bob's parents were heavy drinkers as well. Harper Lee does not elaborate on when Bob Ewell's wife died, but traumatic events, such as losing a spouse, could have played a major role in his alcoholism. Bob is viewed with contempt by the community of Maycomb and their indignant feelings towards him could also contribute to his drinking problem.

How do the three branches of the U.S. government impact healthcare today?

It is not usual for all three branches of the federal government to impact health care in important ways.  However, in recent years, all three branches have.  This is because of the continuing controversy over the programs typically known as “Obamacare.”

In general, it is the two elected branches that affect health care.  Congress is the body that enacts health care policy for the nation as a whole.  This means, for example, that Congress decides what the parameters of the Medicare and Medicaid programs will be.  Recently, it meant that Congress passed Obamacare, creating a new national health insurance regime that is changing the health care system in our country.  It means that, Congress could repeal Obamacare and replace it with some different system.

The executive branch affects health care in at least three ways.  Right now, because President Obama is still in office, the executive branch prevents Congress from repealing Obamacare.  President Obama could and would veto any bill that repealed or replaced his signature accomplishment.  However, President Obama will soon leave office.  When he does, his successor will get to decide whether he or she wants to keep protecting the program since the Congress (which will presumably remain in Republican hands) will still want to repeal it.  The executive branch also affects health care because the president tends to lead public opinion on this issue.  In order to get an alternative to Obamacare, we would probably need a new president to propose and really push a new system.  This means that the identity of the president really helps to determine what kind of system will be proposed.  Finally, the executive branch actually runs the national health care system (those parts that are run by the government).  Because it does this, it affects the way the system works every day.

The judicial branch usually has little to do with health care since health care is not usually connected to major legal and constitutional issues. However, the Supreme Court has recently had to decide whether various parts of Obamacare are constitutional.  It has had to decide on things like whether the national government can require everyone to have health insurance or whether the government can require businesses to provide their employees with insurance programs that cover contraceptives.  Because Obamacare is so controversial, the judicial branch has had to decide which parts of it are constitutional.  In these ways, all three branches effect health care in the US today.

Was Queen Victoria highly significant in the promotion of imperialism? I need to know whether she had an impact on imperialism. Thanks so much!!

Imperialism was heavily tied up with nationalism for the British, and the Queen was the ultimate symbol of nationalist British identity. Queen Victoria not only represented her people, she supported and came to represent the expansion of the British Empire. She ruled from 1837 to 1901, a time we now call the Victorian Period, which was characterized by booming industrialization and an expanding middle class. 

The motivations for British imperialism were primarily economic. Expanding territories opened up opportunity for profiting off of the transformation and sale of imported resources. Goods from the colonies were both profitable exports and wildly popular among British nationals. Imported goods came to define British society. The working and middle classes grew to rely on the stimulants of tea and sugar, which were made readily available throughout Britain. 

Imperialism was motivated in-part by racist or ethnocentric sentiments- many felt that it was their duty to colonize and shepherd the nations of People of Color. Queen Victoria is remembered for her reign as Empress of India, and indeed felt that imperialism was justified by such Social Darwinist-type beliefs. The British people were fiercely loyal to their Queen and believed her to be both the reason and the reward for expanding British territory.

Outline the political, demographic, and economic characteristics of Fiji.

Fiji is a small island nation located in Oceania, a group of islands located in the South Pacific Ocean. Fiji's political system is republican (the latest Constitution was signed in 2013) and is organized into 14 separate provinces. The legislative branch is a unicameral parliamentary system. Fiji has universal suffrage (all citizens 18 and older may vote), but one can only become a citizen if one of his or her parents is already a Fiji citizen.

Fiji has a robust economy for a nation its size. The nation exports many natural resources (fish, minerals, forestry resources) and also benefits from a popular tourism industry. Finally, Fiji exports a large amount of sugar to Europe. Nevertheless, Fiji must import many products, so it suffers from a trade imbalance.

Demographically, Fiji is populated primarily by iTaukei (56.8%) and Indian (37.5%) residents. English and Fijian are the nation's official languages. Most Fijians identify as Protestants or Hindus.

What is the effect of gender differences on cognitive ability?

Introduction

The study of differences between men and women includes biological, emotional, social, and cognitive variables. Cognitive psychologists study the ways in which people process information, including perceiving, attending, learning and memory, and thinking and language. A pioneer review of all the studies concerning gender differences by Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin, published in 1974, concluded that men and women are more alike than different. Published studies note that there is considerable overlap between men’s and women’s performances, no matter what is being measured. An individual man or woman may be much better than most of the opposite gender on any characteristic that is studied. The term “gender differences” refers to differences between groups, rather than between particular individuals. The degree of difference necessary to be considered significant does not have to be great, but the observed differences must be reliable.

Studies of cognitive abilities typically include assessments of verbal skills, including the ability to use and understand words and sentences; mathematical skills, including the ability to manipulate abstract symbols; and spatial skills or the ability to manipulate objects in space. Psychologists Janet Shibley Hyde, Nita McKinley, Paula and Jeremy Caplan, Mary Crawford, and Roger Chaffin have done extensive reviews of published studies on gender differences in cognition and have reported the following overall findings: there are no consistent gender differences in verbal abilities, except that women tend to perform better than men in speech production. Men tend to perform better on spatial abilities, but the sizes of these observed differences are highly dependent on what is required on each specific test. There are no consistent differences in mathematical abilities, with the exception that male adolescents tend to perform better than female adolescents on tests of mathematical problem solving. Finally, differences between men and women in science achievement are minute, and the sizes of such differences vary depending on the specific area of science being tested.

Many attempts have been made to determine whether gender differences are caused by biological or environmental factors. Traditionally, psychologists have referred to attempts to separate these causal factors as the “nature versus nurture” debate. However, biologist Anne Fausto-Sterling says that biological and environmental influences on human development are inseparable. Attempting to separate these effects “both oversimplify biological development and downplay the interactions between an organism and its environment.”

Educational Settings

In educational settings, infants and preschool children are typically tested and observed in the areas of verbal development and spatial ability. Differences before age six are relatively minor, but girls do have a slight advantage in verbal development. By age three, boys generally have somewhat better visual-spatial abilities than girls do. Differing rates of central nervous system maturation, differing prenatal exposures to sex hormones, and other theories to have been proposed to explain these phenomena. While it is accepted that girls' nervous systems mature earlier than boys' do, the role of sex hormones in cognitive development is not well understood and remains the subject of ongoing research.

In grade school, girls typically outperform boys. Girls do at least as well at mathematics and usually better in verbal activities, such as reading, writing, and spelling. Boys’ relatively poorer performance has been attributed to the predominantly feminine atmosphere of the early school years and to their somewhat slower rate of neurological development. Boys may also be more vulnerable to conditions such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) that may interfere with their academic achievement.

In adolescence, gender differences are at their most extreme. Girls who did quite well in school before adolescence often show a drop in grades as well as in standardized test performance. Boys seem to do much better, particularly in the areas of mathematics and science. A few researchers have suggested that increased amounts of testosterone, a male sex hormone, may be related to the teenage boy performing better. Hyde has emphasized that cultural pressure to conform to traditional gender roles becomes stronger in adolescence. The female adolescent is socialized to believe that achievement, particularly in male-dominated disciplines such as math and science, is gender inappropriate. This culturally imposed belief in “femininity-achievement incompatibility” puts girls “in a situation in which two equally important systems of value are in conflict.” Thus, for girls to continue to achieve in traditionally masculine disciplines is unfeminine. When they are younger, girls may be encouraged to get good grades and excel academically in all subjects, but this reward system may change abruptly when they reach adolescence and societal pressure to conform to the traditional feminine role gets stronger.

In adulthood, test-score differences tend to diminish. Hyde concluded that there are no verbal differences between the genders. There seems to be a difference in performance rather than ability, which is caused by social expectations of appropriate gender roles.

Sex differences in cognitive ability can reemerge in late adulthood, as women tend to be at greater risk for cognitive impairment and dementia. Estrogen decline in postmenopausal women appears to be linked to diminished cognitive ability. In studies done in the late 1990s, women receiving estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) tested better for short-term memory and visual perception than those who were not receiving ERT. Preliminary data also appeared to show a decreased risk for Alzheimer disease among ERT users; however, a controversial 2003 study by the Women's Health Initiative suggested the reverse, spurring further study of estrogen and Alzheimer disease development. Estradiol, produced from testosterone, may play a similar protective function in the male brain, but the research lags.

Cognitive style, or the way in which people solve problems, represents another area of gender differences. Jean Piaget studied cognitive development in children and noted that male adolescents used more formal operational thinking than did female adolescents. In formal operational thinking, people approach problems in a precisely logical way. In 1970, William Perry published a study of the cognitive development of undergraduates at Harvard, beginning at the time they entered college until graduation. Although his study included few women, he found the intellectual development of both genders was fairly similar. In the mid-1980s, Mary Field Belenky, Blythe McVicker Clinchy, Nancy Rule Goldberger, and Jill Mattuck Tarule did a similar study based on personal interviews with 135 women, 90 of whom were college students. These researchers were able to identify five “ways of knowing” among these women; however, they were careful to point out that these categories are not necessarily fixed, exhaustive, or universal and that they are similar to categories seen in men’s thinking. They concluded that any gender differences observed were due to socialization and experiences in traditional educational institutions.

Testing Differences

Male and female differences have been noted in achievement tests

such as the SAT Reasoning Test and the ACT. The tests are designed not to benefit one gender more than the other, but gender differences are still found. Men are more likely to have extremely high scores and to do better in mathematics. For example, a study of mathematically precocious youths surveyed forty thousand seventh-graders who scored extremely well on the SAT, a test usually taken by college-bound eleventh- and twelfth-graders. Of the 280 children who scored above 700, only twenty were female. However, some researchers have found that, when the number of advanced math classes taken in high school is taken into account, such differences diminish. In 1991, the American Association of University Women released a report titled Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America, which stated that gender inequities in the classroom contribute to gender differences in academic achievement. For example, in male-dominated disciplines, such as math and science, girls were often discouraged from taking advanced courses. Teachers called on boys to answer questions more often and challenged them more in class.

Differences in mathematics ability have been used to explain why some occupations are male dominated and others female dominated. Both men and women are largely unaware of the many accomplishments of high-achieving women in traditionally male-dominated fields. An example of such invisible contributions include those of scientist Rosalind Franklin to the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is widely associated with Francis Crick and James Watson. Educators and school counselors should emphasize the merits of all career opportunities. For example, boys can be encouraged to explore traditionally female professions, such as nursing and elementary education, while girls can be encouraged to pursue careers in traditionally male professions, such as engineering and computer science.

Differences in male and female abilities have interested educators as they try to maximize the potential of all their students. It is vitally important that both boys and girls receive encouragement to excel in all areas. For example, in grade school, boys need male teachers to imitate, and girls need to have contact with female scientists, engineers, and mathematicians. Counselors should be especially aware of the need to allow adolescents to explore various careers. Training is an important factor in gender differences. Mathematics scores are directly related to the number of mathematics classes a person has taken. Gender differences on tests of spatial perception can also be eliminated by training. Paul Tobin used the embedded figures test, which requires people to pick out a drawing hidden within another drawing. He gave the test to teenage boys and girls, finding that boys performed better. After one practice session, however, the gender differences were eliminated.

Family and sociocultural contexts also influence cognitive abilities. In their study of women’s cognitive styles, Belenky and associates did intensive interviews with women of various backgrounds and ages. They found that some women did not believe that they could think things out. One group of women was called “silent” and had typically been physically or emotionally abused. These “silent” women did not believe that they could understand anything. In addition, both Perry, who studied mostly male undergraduates, and Belenky and her colleagues observed a stage in which some young women and men look to external sources, such as experts and authorities, for “right answers” and “truth.” However, many of the men seemed to identify with the experts and authorities in a way that women did not. It was as though the men saw themselves as “potential future experts.”

Conclusions

Interest in gender differences is common to most societies, but only recently have scientists begun to ask about the origins of such differences. Many researchers are questioning the usefulness of the study of group comparisons in general. Such studies of “difference” are often based on a dominant “standard” group that is then used as a frame of reference to assess how other groups deviate from this standard.

An increased demand for social justice arose during the 1960s and renewed interest in the question of gender differences. Maccoby and Jacklin surveyed every research report on male and female cognitive differences up to 1970 and concluded that the research supported very few real differences. Further studies have suggested that social influences are at least as important as biological influences.

One reason that women have been judged to be inferior to men is that male success has traditionally been used as the standard by which women are measured. If women behaved differently from men, they were thought to be inferior. In the area of personality, Sigmund Freud came to the mistaken conclusion that women are innately psychologically inferior. Karen Horney's psychology of women considers the role of culture in shaping perceptions of women, pointing out that women’s perceived weaknesses were based on the experiences of men.

Overall, research shows that there is much more variability in cognitive performance within each gender. All social groups, such as men and women, are heterogeneous. Individual differences within such groups are caused by the continuous interplay between the biology of the organism and its experiences with its environment.

Bibliography

Belenky, Mary Field, et al. Women’s Ways of Knowing: The Development of Self, Voice, and Mind. Rev. ed. New York: Basic, 1997. Print.

Bleier, Ruth. Science and Gender. New York: Pergamon, 1984. Print.

Eagly, Alice H., Anne E. Beall, and Robert J. Sternberg, eds. The Psychology of Gender. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford, 2005. Print.

Fausto-Sterling, Anne. Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about Women and Men. Rev. ed. New York: Basic, 1992. Print.

Halpern, Diane F. Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities. 4th ed. New York: Psychology, 2012. Print.

Halpern, Diance F., Anna S. Beninger, and Carli A. Straight. "Sex Differences in Intelligence." The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence. Ed. Scott Barry Kaufman and Robert J. Sternberg. New York: Cambridge UP, 2011. 253–72. Print.

Hare-Mursten, Rachel T., and Jeanne Marecek. “The Meaning of Difference: Gender Theory, Post-Modernism, and Psychology.” American Psychologist 43 (1988): 455–64. Print.

Hyde, Janet Shibley. Half the Human Experience. 8th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2013. Print.

Hyde, Janet Shibley, and Marcia C. Linn, eds. The Psychology of Gender: Advances through Meta-Analysis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1986. Print.

Jacklin, Carol. “Female and Male: Issues of Gender.” American Psychologist 44 (1989): 127–33. Print.

"FAQ's on the Brain." Zero to Three. National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families, 2012. Web. 27 Mar. 2014.

How does Shakespeare portray the complicated nature of love in A Midsummer Night's Dream?

Love is not only central in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, but complicated as well. This fact is most fully exemplified by the play's central plot point: the love triangle between Helena, Lysander, and Demetrius. 

At the beginning of the play, Lysander and Hermia are in love, although Hermia's parents have ordered her to marry Demetrius. Demetrius loves Hermia, but Hermia does not return his affections, although Helena is infatuated with him. This complicated situation becomes even trickier once Puck administers a magic potion to Lysander and Demetrius, causing them both to fall in love with Helena. Through this complicated and comical series of relationships, Shakespeare illustrates the difficult and complicated nature of love in all its glory. He illustrates the infatuation, forbidden affection, jealousy, and competitive nature often associated with love, especially young love. Happily, however, everything works out in the end, as Lysander ends up with Hermia, while Demetrius ends up with Helena. As such, while Shakespeare shows the complications associated with love, he ultimately gives us hope that it will all work out for the best in the end. 

What is the initial reaction to the minister's veil appearance on the sabbath morning?

People initially respond to seeing the minister with the black veil on his face with shock and horror.  The sexton is "astonish[ed]," asking what it is that their good minister has on his face.  Another man feels disbelief, asking the sexton if he's sure that this man actually is their minister.  Mr. Hooper's strange appearance has caused "much amazement" from his parishioners, though everything about him is the same as it always was, apart from the veil that covers his eyes, nose, and part of his mouth.  One old woman does not mince her words, saying, "'I don't like it [...].  He has changed himself into something awful, only by hiding his face.'"  It is easy to understand why they'd be so alarmed: we feel we can tell a lot about a person based on their facial expression.  Without being able to see their minister's expression -- especially his eyes -- his congregation feels a bit haunted by his presence.

What is chromium as a dietary supplement?

Overview

Chromium is a mineral the body needs in very small amounts, but it plays a
significant role in human nutrition. Chromium’s most important function in the
body is to help regulate the amount of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Insulin
plays a starring role in this fundamental biological process by regulating the
movement of glucose from the blood and into cells.

Scientists believe that insulin uses chromium as an assistant
(technically, a cofactor) to “unlock the door” to the cell membrane, allowing
glucose to enter the cell. In the past, it was believed that to accomplish this
the body first converted chromium into a large chemical called glucose tolerance
factor (GTF). Intact GTF was thought to be present in certain foods, such as
brewer’s yeast, and for that reason such products were described as superior
sources of chromium. However, subsequent investigation indicated that researchers
were actually creating GTF inadvertently during the process of chemical analysis.
Scientists now believe that there is no such thing as GTF. Rather, chromium
appears to act in concert with a very small protein called low molecular weight
chromium-binding substance (LMWCr) to assist insulin’s action. LMWCr does not
permanently bind chromium and is not a likely source of chromium in foods.

Based on chromium’s close relationship with insulin, this trace mineral has
been studied as a treatment for diabetes. The results have been
somewhat positive: It seems fairly likely that chromium supplements can improve
blood sugar control in people with diabetes. Chromium also might be helpful for
milder abnormalities in blood sugar metabolism. One study suggests that chromium
might aid in weight loss too, but other studies failed to find this effect.

Requirements and Sources

The official U.S. recommendations for daily intake of chromium (in micrograms) are as follows: infants to six months (0.2) and seven to twelve months of age (5.5); children one to three years (11) and four to eight years (15); girls age nine to thirteen years (21) and fourteen to eighteen years (24); boys age nine to thirteen years (25); males age fourteen to fifty years (35); women age nineteen to fifty years (25), men age fifty-one and older (30), women age fifty-one and older (20), pregnant girls (29), pregnant women (30), nursing girls (44) and nursing women (45).

Some evidence suggests that chromium deficiency may be relatively common. However, this has not been proven, and the matter is greatly complicated because a good test to identify chromium deficiency is not available.

Severe chromium deficiency has been seen only in hospitalized persons receiving nutrition intravenously. Symptoms include problems with blood sugar control that cannot be corrected by insulin alone.

Corticosteroid treatment may cause increased chromium loss in the urine. It is possible that this loss of chromium may contribute to corticosteroid-induced diabetes.

Chromium is found in drinking water, especially hard water, but concentrations vary widely. Many good sources of chromium, such as whole wheat, are depleted of this important mineral during processing. The most concentrated sources of chromium are brewer’s yeast (not nutritional or torula yeast) and calf liver. Two ounces of brewer’s yeast or four ounces of calf liver supply between 50 and 60 micrograms (mcg) of chromium. Other good sources of chromium are whole grains, beer, and cheese. Also, calcium carbonate interferes with the absorption of chromium.

Therapeutic Dosages

The dosage of chromium used in studies ranges from 200 to 1,000 mcg daily, mostly in the form of chromium picolinate. However, there may be potential risks in the higher dosages of chromium. These and all other dosages of chromium cite the amount of the actual chromium ion in the supplement (“elemental chromium”), discounting the weight of the substances, such as picolinate, attached to it.

Some products state that they contain “GTF chromium.” Some of these products are manufactured from brewer’s yeast, which was once thought to contain GTF. Others contain chromium as chromium nicotinate, which bears a faint resemblance to the proposed GTF molecule. However, because GTF is no longer believed to exist, this claim should be disregarded.

Therapeutic Uses

Chromium has principally been studied for its possible benefits in improving blood sugar control in people with diabetes. Several studies suggest that people with type 2 diabetes may show some improvement when given appropriate dosages of chromium. One study suggests that chromium may also be useful for diabetes that occurs during pregnancy. In addition, nondiabetic persons with mildly impaired blood sugar control might attain better control of blood sugar with chromium supplementation. Because mild impairment of blood sugar control is believed to increase the risk of heart disease, chromium supplementation might help reduce heart disease rates.

Chromium has been sold as a “fat burner” and is also said to help build muscle tissue. However, most studies evaluating chromium’s ability to promote weight loss have not found benefits. One study failed to find benefit with a combination of chromium and conjugated linoleic acid. Studies evaluating chromium as a performance enhancer or aid to bodybuilding have yielded almost entirely negative results.

Studies on whether chromium can improve cholesterol levels have returned mixed
results. However, one study suggests that chromium combined with grape seed
extract might have a beneficial effect. In addition, among persons taking
beta-blockers, chromium may raise levels of HDL (good)
cholesterol.

When depression is characterized by rapid mood changes, excessive
sleeping and eating, a sense of leaden paralysis, and extreme sensitivity to
negative life events, the condition is called atypical depression. A small
(fifteen participants) double-blind, placebo-controlled study found that chromium
picolinate might be helpful for this form of depression; however, a much larger
study failed to find statistically significant benefits.

According to some researchers, impaired blood sugar control, high cholesterol,
weight gain, and high blood pressure are all part of a larger condition called
metabolic
syndrome, or syndrome X. Because chromium may be helpful for
the first three of these conditions, chromium deficiency has been proposed as the
cause of syndrome X. However, this has not been proven.

One study failed to find that chromium picolinate at 200 mcg per day can improve symptoms of polycystic ovaries, which is a common cause of infertility. Chromium has also been proposed as a treatment for acne, migraine headaches, and psoriasis, but there is no real evidence that it works for these conditions.

Scientific Evidence

Diabetes. The evidence regarding use of chromium for type 2 diabetes and other forms of diabetes remains incomplete and inconsistent. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 180 people with type 2 diabetes were given placebo, 200 mcg of chromium picolinate, or 1,000 mcg chromium picolinate daily. The results showed that HbA1c values (a measure of long-term blood sugar control) improved significantly after two months in the group receiving 1,000 mcg and in both chromium groups after four months. Fasting glucose (a measure of short-term blood sugar control) was also lower in the group taking the higher dose of chromium.

A double-blind trial of seventy-eight people with type 2 diabetes compared two forms of chromium (brewer’s yeast and chromium chloride) with placebo. This rather complex crossover study consisted of four eight-week intervals of treatment in random order. The results in the sixty-seven people who completed the study showed that both forms of chromium significantly improved blood sugar control.

Positive results were also seen in three other double-blind, placebo-controlled studies enrolling more than 130 people with type 2 diabetes. However, several other studies have failed to find benefit for people with type 2 diabetes. These contradictory findings suggest that the benefit, if it really exists, is small at best.

A combination of chromium and biotin might be more effective.
Following positive results in a small pilot trial, researchers conducted a
double-blind study of 447 people with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes. One-half
the participants were given placebo, and the rest were given a combination of 600
mcg chromium (as chromium picolinate) with 2 mg of biotin daily. All participants
continued to receive standard oral medications for diabetes. In the ninety-day
study period, participants given the chromium-biotin combination showed
significantly better glucose regulation than those given placebo. The relative
benefit was clear in levels of fasting glucose and in HgA1c.

One placebo-controlled study of thirty women with pregnancy-related diabetes found that supplementation with chromium (at a dosage of 4 or 8 mcg chromium picolinate for each kilogram of body weight) significantly improved blood sugar control. Also, chromium has shown some promise for treating diabetes caused by corticosteroid treatment.

Improved blood sugar control in people without diabetes. Many
people develop impaired responsiveness to insulin (insulin
resistance) and mildly abnormal blood sugar levels. A few
small, double-blind trials have found that chromium supplementation may be
helpful, although two studies found no benefit. Another small, double-blind trial
found that chromium improved the body’s response to insulin among overweight
people at risk of developing diabetes. There is growing evidence that mildly
impaired blood sugar control increases the risk of heart disease, suggesting that
chromium supplementation might be useful.

Weight loss. The evidence is mixed on whether chromium is an effective aid for reducing weight or improving body composition (improving the ratio of fatty tissue to lean tissue). In one study, 219 people were given either placebo or 200 or 400 mcg of chromium picolinate daily. Participants were not advised to follow any particular diet. In seventy-two days, people taking chromium experienced significantly greater weight loss than those not taking chromium, more than two-and-one-half pounds versus about one-quarter pound. People taking chromium actually gained lean body mass, so the loss of fatty tissue was even more dramatic: more than four pounds versus less than one-half pound. However, a high dropout rate makes the results of this study somewhat unreliable.

However, in another double-blind study by the same researcher, 130 moderately overweight people attempting to lose weight were given either placebo or 400 mcg of chromium daily. At the end of the trial, no statistically significant differences in weight or body composition were seen between groups. Researchers were able to show benefit only by resorting to fairly complicated statistical maneuvers.

In a third study, forty-four overweight women were given either placebo or 400 mcg of chromium per day. All participants were placed on an exercise program. Through twelve weeks, no differences were seen between the two groups in terms of body weight, waist circumference, or percentage of body fat. A small double-blind trial of older women undergoing resistance training also failed to find evidence of benefit. Generally negative results also have been seen in other small double-blind trials.

When larger studies find positive results and smaller studies do not, it often indicates that the treatment under study is only weakly effective. This may be the case with chromium as a weight-loss treatment. If chromium is effective for weight loss, one small study suggests it may work by influencing the brain and its role in appetite and food cravings.

Heart disease prevention. Insulin resistance and mildly elevated blood sugar levels appear to increase the risk of heart disease. Chromium supplementation might help by improving insulin responsiveness and by normalizing blood sugar. In support of this, an observational trial found associations between higher chromium intake and reduced risk of heart attack.

Safety Issues

Although the precise upper limit of safe chromium intake is not known, it is believed that chromium is safe when taken at a dosage of 50 to 200 mcg daily. Side effects appear to be rare. However, chromium is a heavy metal and might conceivably build up and cause problems if taken to excess.

There is one report of kidney, liver, and bone marrow damage in a person who took 1,200 to 2,400 mcg of chromium for several months; in another report, as little as 600 mcg for six weeks was enough to cause damage. Such problems appear to be quite rare, and it is possible that these persons already had health problems that predisposed them to such a reaction. The risk of chromium toxicity is believed to be higher in people who already have liver or kidney disease.

Nonetheless, based on these reports, it is possible that the dosage of chromium found most effective for persons with type 2 diabetes (1,000 mcg daily) might present some health risks. For example, there is some evidence that if chromium is taken in high enough amounts, it may be converted from its original safe form (chromium 3) into a known carcinogen, chromium 6. One should consult a doctor before taking more than 200 mcg of chromium daily.

Persons who have diabetes and for whom chromium is effective may need to cut down the dosage of any medication taken for diabetes. Again, one should consult a doctor before continuing chromium use.

There are also several concerns about the picolinate form of chromium in particular. Picolinate can alter levels of neurotransmitters. This has led to concern among some experts that chromium picolinate might be harmful for persons with depression, bipolar disease, or schizophrenia. There also has been one report of a severe skin reaction caused by chromium picolinate.

Finally, there are fairly theoretical and uncertain concerns that chromium picolinate could have adverse effects on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Also, the maximum safe dosage of chromium for women who are pregnant or nursing and for persons with severe liver or kidney disease has not been established.

Important Interactions

One may need extra chromium if also taking calcium carbonate supplements or
antacids. The chromium supplement and the doses of these
substances should not be taken within two hours of each other, because the two
together may interfere with chromium’s absorption.

People who are taking corticosteroids may need extra
chromium. Also, people who are taking oral diabetes medications or insulin should
seek medical supervision before taking chromium, because the dosages of these
drugs might need to be reduced. Finally, chromium supplementation may improve
levels of HDL (good) cholesterol if the individual is also taking
beta-blockers.

Bibliography

Albarracin, C. A., et al. “Chromium Picolinate and Biotin Combination Improves Glucose Metabolism in Treated, Uncontrolled Overweight to Obese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes.” Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews 24 (2008): 41-51.

Anton, S. D., et al. “Effects of Chromium Picolinate on Food Intake and Satiety.” Diabetes Technology and Therapeutics 10 (2008): 405-412.

Diaz, M. L., et al. “Chromium Picolinate and Conjugated Linoleic Acid Do Not Synergistically Influence Diet- and Exercise-Induced Changes in Body Composition and Health Indexes in Overweight Women.” Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 19 (2008): 61-68.

Docherty, J. P., et al. “A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Exploratory Trial of Chromium Picolinate in Atypical Depression: Effect on Carbohydrate Craving.” Journal of Psychiatric Practice 11 (2005): 302-314.

Lucidi, R. S., et al. “Effect of Chromium Supplementation on Insulin Resistance and Ovarian and Menstrual Cyclicity in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome.” Fertility and Sterility 84 (2005): 1755-1757.

Pei, D., et al. “The Influence of Chromium Chloride-Containing Milk to Glycemic Control of Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.” Metabolism 55 (2006): 923-927.

Yazaki, Y., et al. “A Pilot Study of Chromium Picolinate for Weight Loss.” Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 16 (2010): 291-299.

What is intrinsic motivation?

Intrinsic motivation is that within ourselves that motivates us, as opposed to motivation outside ourselves, for example, being motivated by the prospect of recognition or monetary reward. I happen to think that intrinsic motivation is far more powerful than extrinsic motivation, but not everyone will agree with that opinion.

Let me give you some examples of intrinsic motivation. One great satisfaction in life is completing a difficult task. Have you ever worked really hard on something and noticed how great it feels when you are done? We are motivated to accomplish a difficult task to attain that wonderful feeling. Another kind of intrinsic motivation is the motivation that makes us take on a new challenge and overcome new hurdles. Certainly, we could just learn how to do one thing well and keep on doing that one thing, but most of us take great pleasure in stretching ourselves, mentally or physically, to learn something new, to climb a higher mountain, to take on an extra task at work, all ways of challenging ourselves. There is an intrinsic reward in setting new and challenging goals for oneself, and that inward reward is what motivates so many people to strive to do something more. The satisfaction of curiosity is another form of intrinsic motivation. We often wonder why, and we reward ourselves with the answers. Curiosity is a powerful driving force for humans, and a very intrinsic one.

I am not an evolutionary psychologist, but I really think that humans who were able to act upon intrinsic motivation were the ones who were most likely to survive long enough to pass on their genes. These are the people who were motivated by the idea of completing difficult tasks, stretching their physical and mental muscles, and asking "Why?" for the satisfaction of the answer. They cultivated plants, invented the wheel, designed pyramids, and created democracy. In short, they were responsible for the advances of humankind. I think they took great intrinsic pleasure in their creative and intellectual endeavors, and now, of course, so can we.