Thursday, June 30, 2016

In Macbeth, Lady Macbeth provides the audience with more information about her husband’s character. What does she say? From what you know...

Lady Macbeth tells us that her husband is ambitious, but does not have the initiative to act on his ambitions.


From what we have seen of Macbeth before we meet Lady Macbeth, we might assume that he is a very ambitious man.  After all, he is an accomplished soldier and war hero.  He also had a strong reaction to the witches’ prophecies.  When they told him that he would be king, he was very excited.  In fact, when he learned that Malcolm, the king’s son, was named heir instead, he was angry.



The Prince of Cumberland! that is a step
On which I must fall down, or else o'erleap,
For in my way it lies. Stars, hide your fires;
Let not light see my black and deep desires:
The eye wink at the hand; yet let that be,
Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see. (Act 1, Scene 4)



From this aside, which is said only to the audience, you would assume that Macbeth is all hot and ready to do whatever it takes to become king.  However, his wife does not believe it.  She has enough ambition for the both of them, but she feels that her husband does not have it in him to take what he wants.



Glamis thou art, and Cawdor; and shalt be
What thou art promised: yet do I fear thy nature;
It is too full o' the milk of human kindness
To catch the nearest way: thou wouldst be great;
Art not without ambition, but without
The illness should attend it … (Act 1, Scene 5)



Basically, Lady Macbeth thinks that her husband is a wimp.  He does not have what it takes to kill King Duncan and take his place.  For this reason, Lady Macbeth has to be the man in the relationship and get him to do what needs to be done.  She does so.


The reader or viewer may be initially surprised at Lady Macbeth’s pronouncements, because Macbeth seems very ambitious.  However, it turns out she was right.  When Macbeth arrives home, he is wishy-washy and tries to talk himself out of killing Duncan. He also tells his wife he is worried about getting caught.  She ensures that she is the one who makes the plan and makes him carry it out to the letter.

How are Jem and Scout affected by their father's defense of Tom Robinson in To Kill a Mockingbird?

Jem and Scout have to put up with both children and adults telling them how horrible their father is for defending Tom Robinson. Scout gets in fights. She yells at Cecil Jacobs, then draws blood defending her father to cousin Francis at Christmas. The pressure from the community is so bad that even an elderly neighbor named Mrs. Dubose says horrible things to the kids about their father. As a result, Jem goes berserk. Scout explains how it has affected Jem to the point of chopping off the tops of Mrs. Dubose's camellia bushes:



"Jem had probably stood as much guff about Atticus lawing for ni**ers as had I, and I took it for granted that he kept his temper—he had a naturally tranquil disposition and a slow fuse. At the time, however, I thought the only explanation for what he did was that for a few minutes he simply went mad" (102).



The above passage is a kind of prologue to the story of Jem's camellia-chopping day. He grabs Scout's new baton that he has just bought her and takes out all his frustration and anger on the bushes. He has to face Mrs. Dubose afterwards, as Atticus orders, but he took out her bushes anyway, which shows just how much stress he is under during this time. Atticus shows that he understands that the kids have been and will be under pressure because of him defending Tom Robinson as follows:



"Scout. . . when summer comes you'll have to keep your head about far worse things. . . It's not fair for you and Jem, I know that, but sometimes we have to make the best of things, and the way we conduct ourselves when the chips are down—well, all I can say is, when you and Jem are grown, maybe you'll look back on this with some compassion and some feeling that I didn't let you down" (104).



Atticus tries to prepare them for more to come the following summer, and the kids seem to keep themselves together in the meantime. On the day of the trial, though, Scout overhears that Atticus was appointed to defend Tom and she believes that would have changed her whole year had she known:



"This was news, news that put a different light on things: Atticus had to, whether he wanted to or not. I thought it odd that he hadn't said anything to us about it—we could have used it many times in defending him and ourselves. . . But did that explain the town's attitude? The court appointed Atticus to defend him. Atticus aimed to defend him. That's what they didn't like about it. It was confusing" (163).



Scout becomes confused by the whole ordeal. It's difficult because she doesn't understand why she and her family have to be persecuted for standing up for what is right. Jem, on the other hand, really takes it hard afterwards. He really gets involved in the trial and believes that his father will win the case for Tom Robinson—that is, until the conviction is passed by the jury: then he cries. He's moody for weeks and doesn't even want to discuss it with Scout ever again. Fortunately, Jem and Scout come out of it all alright, and the pressure from the community settles down by the time they go back to school in the fall.

Wednesday, June 29, 2016

In the novel The Kite Runner, describe a situation in which a character was brutally honest with a friend. Also, describe how the friend was...

In Chapter 24, Amir talks to Omar Faisal, his immigration lawyer, who suggests that Amir relinquishes Sohrab to an orphanage and files for an orphan petition. Amir would then be able to begin starting his I-600 form and home study while Sohrab is in a safe place. After speaking with Mr. Faisal, Amir is brutally honest with Sohrab and tells him that the immigration process is more difficult than he expected. Amir then tells Sohrab that Mr. Faisal thinks it would be best if they put him in an orphanage for the time being. Sohrab begs Amir not to send him back to an orphanage. Amir tries to explain to Sohrab that the orphanage will be in a comfortable, safe place and that Sohrab will only be there for a short time. However, Sohrab believes that he will get hurt again and begins to cry hysterically. That night, Sohrab goes into the bathroom and attempts to kill himself by slitting his wrist while he is in the bathtub. Amir's honesty upsets Sohrab to the point that he attempts suicide. 

Monday, June 27, 2016

What voting restrictions were enacted to keep African-American males from voting?

After the Civil War, federal troops remained in the Southern states to ensure that those who had been slaves were treated equally and properly. This was the era of Reconstruction.  During this period the 15th Amendment was passed, giving prior slaves and all African-Americans the right to vote.  But once federal troops withdrew from the South, in 1877, the Southern states did everything they could to prevent black Americans from voting.


Not every state took precisely the same actions to accomplish this, but there were any number of successful ways of keeping black people from voting. One was the poll tax. This required one to pay a fee in order to have the right to vote.  Former slaves, who were struggling for their economic existence, did not have the wherewithal to pay a poll tax. Another method was the literacy test.  Since it had been against the law to teach slaves how to read and write, few, if any, could pass such a test, and even free black Americans often could not do so.  I believe another method was requiring a voter to own land, and this kept African-Americans from voting, too.  When none of these was effective, there were always threats and intimidation.  Black people were threatened with physical harm and the loss of their jobs.


The South was bound and determined to not allow African-Americans to vote, because this was an imposition by the North, because Southerners still considered them to be property, not human beings, and because there were enough black people in these states to greatly influence the outcome of an election, even, during Reconstruction, to the point of electing black candidates.  Once Reconstruction was over, these various voting restrictions, as well as many other Jim Crow laws, were the Southerners effort to maintain their "values" and way of life. 

Explain two opposing plans to improve the economy and social conditions during the Great Depression.

There were two different methods used to deal with Great Depression. Herbert Hoover and Franklin D. Roosevelt had few different views regarding how the Great Depression should be handled and about what should be done to improve social conditions.


Herbert Hoover believed in a concept known as laissez-faire. Based on this policy, President Hoover believed the federal government should have a very limited role in dealing with the economy and in working to improve social conditions. President Hoover believed in voluntary actions. He asked businesses not to cut wages and to keep the factories operating. President Hoover was against raising taxes to provide for programs to help people who were in need and to help get the economy going again. Unfortunately for President Hoover, his policies weren’t successful, as the effects of the Great Depression got worse while he was President.


Franklin D. Roosevelt believed the government should be actively involved in trying to end the Great Depression and in trying to improve social conditions. President Roosevelt launched a series of government programs that created jobs and provided relief to the American people. People received help refinancing their mortgages. People found work as a result of programs such as the Civil Conservation Corps and the Civil Works Administration. The Social Security Act was passed which gave a pension to those people who were at least 65 years old. While the Great Depression didn’t end because of President Roosevelt’s New Deal programs, the impact of it was lessened. The arrival of World War II led to the end of the Great Depression.


There were different viewpoints regarding how to deal with the effects of the Great Depression. One approach was more successful than the other approach.

What is the psychological state of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth ?

Immediately after Duncan's murder, and even before it, Lady Macbeth is trying to maintain calm while Macbeth gives in to his anxiety and panic.  He hallucinates a bloody dagger prior to the murder, aware that it is the result of his "heat-oppressed brain."  After the murder, when Macbeth is falling to pieces over not being able to say "Amen," Lady Macbeth says, "These deeds must not be thought / After these ways.  So, it will make us mad."  In other words, what's done is done, and she wants them to move forward so that dwelling on the past doesn't drive them crazy.  He feels that not even the entire ocean contains enough water to wash his hands clean.


However, later, after Macbeth has ordered the murders of Banquo and Fleance as well as Lady Macduff and her children, Lady Macbeth succumbs to her guilty conscience while Macbeth seems quite hardened to the violence for which he's responsible.  Lady Macbeth sleepwalks nightly and sees Duncan's blood on her hands, dreaming that she cannot wash it off.  Further, her nocturnal ramblings make it clear that she is burdened by her guilt.  She asks, "The thane of Fife had a wife.  Where is she now? -- What, will these hands ne'er be clean?"  Ironically, she is in mental ruins because she has created a monster who orders the killing of children without remorse. 

What does Winnie do with the bottle of spring water Jesse gave her in Tuck Everlasting?

Winnie pours the spring water onto the toad.


Winnie accidentally sees Jesse drinking from the spring in the woods near her house and ends up going on a grand adventure. She learns that he is immortal, and so is his entire family.  Jesse is seventeen, but he is really one hundred and four years old.  He will be seventeen forever.


Jesse is quite smitten with Winnie, even though she is not old enough yet to be a girlfriend.  He asks her to wait until she is his age and then drink the water and become immortal too.



But the thing is, you knowing about the water already, and living right next to it so's you could go there any time, well, listen, how'd it be if you was to wait till you're seventeen, same age as me—heck, that's only six years off—and then you could go and drink some, and then you could go away with me! (Ch. 14)



Winnie is “struck dumb” by this offer.  Winnie also likes Jessie quite a bit.  She is too young to make a decision about who she wants to spend the rest of her life with, let alone eternity.  Jesse tells her to think about it.


While helping Mae Tuck escape from prison, Jesse gives Winnie a bottle of the spring water and reminds her of her options.  Later, Winnie sees a toad she has befriended being harassed by a dog.  She decides to get the bottle Jesse gave her and use it to help the toad.



The toad still squatted where she had dropped it, the dog still waited at the fence. Winnie pulled out the cork from the mouth of the bottle, and kneeling, she poured the precious water, very slowly and carefully, over the toad. (Ch. 25) 



The decision is not necessarily as meaningful as you might think.  At the time, Winnie felt that she could get more water any time.  A fire in the woods eventually eliminates that possibility, but Winnie has made her choice.  She wants to be mortal.  She grows up and dies, and leads a normal life.  Her experience with the Tucks seems to show her that being immortal is not all it’s cracked up to be.  Dumping out the water that Jesse gave her was a hint at her future choice not to be immortal. 

While reading Ursula K. Le Guin's "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas," at what point do you suspect that something is amiss in the bucolic...

The answer to that first question will vary from reader to reader.


If you're particularly astute or just pretty cynical, you probably suspected that something was amiss in the town as soon as you read the title of the story. The word "Omelas" is unfamiliar, but because the title is "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas," you pretty much realize right away that Omelas is a place. And you might figure that, if people are walking away from the place, and if the story is about those people who leave, then perhaps something dubious is going on in Omelas, wherever that is.


Other readers might start to suspect that something untoward is going on in Omelas as they read that long first paragraph that bombards the senses with the epic Disney-like description of the Festival of Summer. Joyous clanging bells? Fluttering banners? Dancing people? Prancing horses? It sounds great, but this is a story for grown-ups, not the text of some picture book of bedtime stories. A lot of readers right here will start to wonder what's going on beyond all this foofaraw, especially if they're somewhat familiar with the author. 


But readers who trust the author or who somehow expect a happy, birds-chirping, ribbon-flying kind of story might not know something is up in Omelas until the narrator calls attention to the fact that the place seems "goody-goody":



But even granted trains, I fear that Omelas so far strikes some of you as goody-goody. Smiles, bells, parades, horses, bleh. If so, please add an orgy. If an orgy would help, don't hesitate.



At that point, some readers will start to wonder why the narrator is talking about the city appearing to be all happy and utopian; they might wonder then what's going on that can't be seen at the festival.


Still, some readers may be willing to accept the description of Omelas as a place that's just swell. They might not suspect anything different until the narrator drops this comment:



Do you believe? Do you accept the festival, the city, the joy? No? Then let me describe one more thing.



That phrase, "one more thing," feels ominous. What's the thing? Is it a surprise, because the narrator has waited this long to reveal it? Yes.


The following paragraph reveals the horrible aspect of Omelas in all its hideous detail, so if you got all the way to the description of the basement with the locked door and the stinky mops without suspecting that something was wrong, then you have no more time to suspect. That's when you find out for certain what's amiss in Omelas.


The ending, thankfully, involves a description of the people who can't bear to accept the situation with the imprisoned and abused child.


On the one hand, the author prepares readers for this ending by titling the story like she did. Even though we're caught up in reading about the beauty and joy of Omelas, and then the horror it countenances, in the back of our minds we still know that we're reading a story called "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas," so we know that some of these citizens aren't going to tolerate the situation.


On the other hand, the ending is still a surprise. The narrator has spent so much time talking about how citizens react to the abused child, and about how they continue on with their daily lives in spite of their knowledge that he or she is suffering. We're just starting to deal with the fact that these citizens have their little joyous summer festival even while knowing that the child is suffering, and we're focused on our outrage. That's when the author slips in the surprise ending that lightens things up and restores a bit of hope into the statement she's apparently making about the dark side of human nature. The startling fact that some of these citizens give up their utopian lifestyle to "keep walking, and walk straight out of the city of Omelas" comes not only as a surprise, but also as a relief.

What is mycoplasma?


Definition


Mycoplasma is a bacterial genus belonging to the class
Mollicutes. A number of Mycoplasma species have been established
as human pathogens, including pneumoniae,
hominis, and genitalium.




Natural Habitat and Features


Mycoplasma has been isolated from humans and animals including
cows, dogs, cats, pigs, horses, poultry, sheep, goats, and small rodents.
Mycoplasma is the smallest bacteria that can live
independently. It has a small genome size that is in the lower limit of complexity
necessary for self-replicating organisms. Mycoplasma can survive
in the presence or absence of oxygen.



Mycoplasma lacks a cell wall, so it does not react in a Gram’s
stain and is not susceptible to antibiotics that target cell walls. It
has a specialized organelle, or tip, that provides motility and mediates bacterial
interactions with its host cells. Adherence proteins allow
Mycoplasma attachment to cells lining the respiratory and
genitourinary tracts, acting like a parasite on the surface of its host cells and
using their precursors for production of its genetic material. Some species
(pneumoniae, genitalium,
fermentans, penetrans, and
gallisepticum, a poultry pathogen) can invade host cells and
live intracellularly.



Mycoplasma produces hydrogen peroxide and superoxide, substances that cause injuries to the mucosal surface; the activation of inflammatory mediators is associated with its infectious process. Mycoplasma is challenging to grow in culture; thus, bacterial identification mainly depends on molecular-biochemical techniques.




Pathogenicity and Clinical Significance

Although there are seven Mycoplasma species detected in the
human genitourinary tract, only three species (genitalium,
hominis, and Ureaplasma species) are
associated with urogenital disease. Nonchlamydial nongonococcal urethritis in men
may result from genitalium and Ureaplasma
species. Genitalium has also been isolated from the urogenital
tract of women with cervicitis and pelvic inflammatory
disease. Genitalium and
Ureaplasma species have also been implicated in extragenital
infections.



Hominis and Ureaplasma species have been
implicated in chorioamnionitis, endometritis, pyelonephritis, postpartum or postabortum fevers, neonatal
meningitis, pneumonia, bacteremia, and arthritis
(specifically, hominis in postpartum women and
Ureaplasma species in sexually acquired reactive
arthritis).



Hominis has been related to extragenital infections, including
sepsis, hematoma infection, vascular and catheter-related infections, sternal wound infections following
thoracic surgery, prosthetic valve endocarditis, brain abscesses, and pneumonia.
These infections occurred mainly through the spread of bacteria in the bloodstream
and mostly in immunocompromised persons who had injuries of anatomical barriers
and had polytrauma.



Pneumoniae causes lung infections, often called atypical
pneumonia or walking pneumonia. It is transmitted through
respiratory droplets between persons. At highest risk for infection are those
persons who are in close contact with others, including those who live, work, or
perform activities in crowded places such as schools, homeless shelters,
hospitals, prisons, and dormitories. Other risk factors for
Mycoplasma respiratory infection include smoking and lower
levels of preexisting immunoglobulin G levels. Mycoplasma
pneumonia has pulmonary manifestations (such as nonproductive cough) and
extrapulmonary manifestations (such as cardiologic, neurologic, and dermatologic
symptoms). There is no age or gender predilection for the disease. Although people
of all ages are at risk, infection rarely occurs in children younger than five
years of age.




Drug Susceptibility


Hominis is treated with tetracycline,
the drug of choice, usually for seven days, but the duration of treatment is based
on observations of symptom resolution and clinical judgment. Resistant strains
have been reported, and alternate choices of antibiotics include clindamycin and
fluoroquinolones (such as gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin).



Ureaplasma infections are treated with tetracycline or
erythromycin, the drugs of choice. A seven day course of doxycycline can be used
for treatment of urethritis caused by Ureaplasma species.
Alternative antimicrobials for Ureaplasma include
fluoroquinolones (such as levofloxacin and ofloxacin) and chloramphenicol.
Clinical observations are important in considering treatment duration.


Neonatal meningitis caused by hominis and Ureaplasma species is often treated with tetracyclines, despite contraindications for use in children. Alternative medications for use in children include chloramphenicol for both bacteria, clindamycin for hominis, and erythromycin for Ureaplasma species. Lower respiratory infections in newborns can be treated with azithromycin or erythromycin. The suggested duration of treatment for Mycoplasma infections in newborns is ten to fourteen days.



Genitalium and pneumonia are treated with macrolides (such as azithromycin, clarithromycin, and erythromycin), fluoroquinolones (such as levofloxacin and moxifloxacin), and tetracyclines (such as doxycycline). The duration of treatment ranges from five to fourteen days, depending on what antibiotic is used.




Bibliography


Blanchard, Alain, and Cecile M. Bebear. “Mycoplasmas of Humans.” In Molecular Biology and Pathogenicity of Mycoplasmas, edited by Shmuel Razin and Richard Herrmann. New York: Kluwer Academic, 2002.



Johannson, Karl-Erik, and Bertil Petterrson. “Taxonomy of Mollicutes.” In Molecular Biology and Pathogenicity of Mycoplasmas, edited by Shmuel Razin and Richard Herrmann. New York: Kluwer Academic, 2002.



Mandell, Lionel A., et al. “Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society Consensus Guidelines on the Management of Community Acquired Pneumonia in Adults.” Clinical Infectious Diseases 44 (2007): S27-S72.



Ryan, Kenneth J. “ Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma.” In Sherris Medical Microbiology, edited by Kenneth J.Ryan and C. George Ray. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010.

Sunday, June 26, 2016

Why is the technique of sampling important in ensuring rigorous research results?

The technique of sampling requires that the researcher pick his or her subjects mostly at random, and that the sample size be sufficiently large so that the subjects will be roughly representative of the population as a whole. If a study uses subjects picked because of their proximity to the study, or because those subjects are already known to the researchers, the data produced from that study will be skewed. In other words, the findings will not be representative of the population group the researchers hope to study. Consequently, the study will have limited value.


For example, if I want to figure out the "political leanings of most Americans" and I decide to figure that out by asking that question of everyone I personally know, the results of my study will be almost worthless. The people I know are not a random sample because they are filtered, so to speak, by the fact that I already know them, and vast amounts of research show that most people associate with others who share their political beliefs. In other words, my study will come back looking like an affirmation or mirror of what my own political leanings are. It will be a study of the political leanings of my friends.


A similar problem exists if I ask the same question of five hundred people who live in a one mile radius of me: the sampling is geographically biased and not at all representative of the country as a whole. That is why social scientists devised the notion of random sampling, in which a reasonably large group of people, from the population that is supposed to be studied, is picked at random (to avoid unconscious bias).


To find out the political leanings of most Americans, our hypothetical study would have to contact people in all fifty states, making sure that the people contacted were in both cities and rural areas (again, so that the population of the study is representative of the country as a whole). The sampling method would also require that the study does not "oversample" from the East Coast or the West Coast, or from any other region, relative to the population as a whole.


Additionally, researchers would want to avoid talking primarily to one age group or socio-economic group, because such an over-representation will not be a good proxy for the population as a whole. The researchers will also want to make sure that their sample is roughly split between men and women, for the same reason as mentioned above.


Essentially, the technique of sampling is designed to ensure that the group being studied is actually representative of the larger group that the researchers are hoping to understand. Accomplishing this task is much harder than it might first appear.

What is the concept of prejudice in social psychology?


Introduction

Prejudice can be defined as a global view or attitude about a group of people; prejudicial views are characterized by their inflexibility, and they are usually considered to be negative and directed toward minority or out-groups. The effects of prejudice in American society, and throughout the world, are generally considered devastating, not only to the individuals who suffer injustice, humiliation, and violence as a result of discrimination based on prejudice but also to the integrity of society as a whole. Groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups attempt to promote segregation, prejudice, and discrimination, at least partly as a way of promoting a dominant status for the white race. Most people realize that this is both unconstitutional and unfair. Since people have no choice over the race, ethnicity, religion, or gender into which they are born, it is unjust to judge persons solely on the basis of biological givens such as skin color, hair color, facial structure, gender, or other such characteristics. Almost everyone has experienced some prejudice or discrimination and can understand its negative effects on self-esteem
and self-image.








A classic book on prejudice that came from the field of social psychology is Gordon Allport’s
The Nature of Prejudice, published in 1954. His approach to prejudice is still considered contemporary because of his emphasis on cognitive factors such as categorization and normal cognitive bias. There are two broad categories of prejudice: personal prejudice and group prejudice. Allport’s model involves
in-group and out-group distinctions. In an extension of Allport’s theory, Thomas Pettigrew proposed the ultimate attribution error in an article he published in 1979. Pettigrew suggests that people tend to favor the actions of people in their in-group (those whom they perceive as being “like them”) and attribute negative motives to the same actions by out-group members. If an in-group member observes a negative act by an out-group member, the in-group member is likely to attribute the action to genetics or some other concrete factor. On the other hand, if an in-group member observes a positive act by an out-group member, he or she may attribute the act to luck, an exception to the rule, high motivation and effort, or the particular situational context in which the behavior occurred.


A study published in 1947 by Kenneth Clark
and Mamie Clark on color preference of dolls in preschool children showed that even very young children preferred the “white” dolls to those representing their respective race or skin color. In the 1970s, Jane Elliott conducted an experiment with elementary school children in which she instructed the brown-eyed children to sit in the back of the room and told them they could not use the drinking fountain. Blue-eyed children were given special privileges such as extra recess time and extra lunch helpings. The two groups of children were told not to interact with each other. Elliott belittled and berated the brown-eyed children, and their academic performance faltered. The favored blue-eyed group became even more belittling to the brown-eyed children than the teacher was. After several days, roles were reversed, and the negative effects of prejudice were repeated. Eventually all the children disliked one another, demonstrating the destructive effects of status inequalities based on something as superficial as eye color.




Theorizing Prejudicial Influences


Donn Byrne, a social psychologist, has written about theories on the conditions under which prejudice may develop. Byrne and others believe that periods of economic hardship and scarce resources characterized by lack of availability of food and jobs can contribute to the occurrence and intensity of various types of prejudice. In the field of social psychology, this premise is part of what is known as realistic conflict theory. Indeed, throughout history, in periods of resource scarcity and political unrest, the unfair effects of prejudice have flourished. From the mid-fifteenth and sixteenth centuries until the present, racial and religious prejudice leading to discrimination has resulted in violence against different ethnic and religious groups in what has been a worldwide phenomenon. From the United States to the various republics that, until 1992, made up the Soviet Union, and from Northern Ireland to South Africa, these problems have been significant. Efforts made by countries to achieve internal peace and stability have been difficult, at best, given climates of religious or ethnic intolerance and economic hardship.


Class status is one factor that has been found to have a profound effect on influencing prejudicial beliefs and expectations. In the 1940s, an epidemiological study of psychopathology, or mental illness, called the Midtown Study was initiated in Manhattan in New York City, and results were published in the 1960s. A number of stereotypes about lower-class patients that suggested they were incapable of achieving insight into their problems, unable to ask for psychological help, and unable to examine their motives or moods were disputed by this research. In fact, the research showed that lower-class patients did want to achieve psychodynamic understanding and insight into their problems. The research also showed that patients of lower socioeconomic status had less access to treatment facilities than their higher-class counterparts.


Racial and ethnic bias has been found to exist even among
mental health professionals, a group of professionals who should, by definition, be objective and neutral in their work; however, very little research has been published in this area. Some investigators found no evidence of racial bias on diagnoses assigned by clinicians who were of different racial backgrounds. Others found that white, middle-class psychiatrists who recorded fewer symptoms for black patients as compared to white patients nevertheless concentrated on the more unusual or bizarre symptoms of the blacks. This practice resulted in the psychopathology of black patients appearing more severe than the psychopathology of white patients. Researchers and clinicians have noted that white patients have more often been given the label “neurotic” and black or Puerto Rican patients given the label “schizophrenic” for similar behaviors. Social psychologist Leonard Derogatis and others caution that race and social class designation are the most prominent indicators that affect psychological assessment and symptom presentation.




Prejudice as an “Ism”

Prejudice that has become widespread takes forms that are sometimes referred to as “isms”: racism, classism, sexism, ageism, heterosexism, ableism, and so on. One of the most insidious forms of misunderstanding is the prejudicial attitudes held regarding the disabled, of whom there were more than fifty-six million in the United States in 2010, according to a broad definition by the U.S. Census Bureau. In American society, those with emotional or learning disabilities (the invisible disabilities) often suffer the worst misunderstanding and discrimination caused by ignorance, perpetuation of myths, social ostracism, and avoidance of contact. It is known that nondisabled persons have demonstrated lack of empathy, avoidance of social interaction, lack of eye contact, and lack of respect for the disabled. Research has shown that even disabled persons hold negative attitudes toward other disabled persons if the others have a disability different from their own. In reality, those who are physically disabled have been found to have strong self-concepts and good social interaction skills and have often been more able to provide support to others than the other way around.




Investigating Techniques

Psychologists have developed various techniques for investigating and measuring social attitudes such as prejudice. Various scales exist for this purpose, from the Thurstone scale to the more frequently used Likert format. The Thurstone method of paired comparisons is thought to provide a method for the selection of items on an attitude test. In the Likert format, attitudes are measured according to approval rankings on positive and negative dimensions, with variations in between two opposite rankings as possible selection points. For example, the choices for the question “What do you think of homosexuals holding public office?” would be “strongly approve,” “approve,” “undecided,” “disapprove,” and “strongly disapprove.”


Respondents are asked to rank the intensity and direction of their attitudes by choosing one of the five available choices for a number of similar items. The semantic differential, another popular technique in social-attitude research, presents a concept or set of concepts, such as “Democrat,” “God,” or “Puerto Rican.” The respondent is asked to rate the concept on a set of seven-point scales in which the endpoints are certain adjectives, such as “strong” and “weak,” or “active” and “passive.” The semantic differential has been criticized for difficulty with interpretations derived from it, but it remains popular for its ease of use. Public opinion surveys are also used to measure attitudes either for or against certain candidates, social issues, or legislation. These surveys, although useful, can be plagued with problems, such as interviewer bias, subject selection bias, and question bias, if not carefully designed.




Effects

Many practical applications have developed from a knowledge of prejudice and its effects that go beyond surveys and attitude measurement instruments. Women, both Caucasians and minorities, who have been able to gain access to higher education and obtain advanced degrees have found that they are still paid less than men with the same credentials. Moreover, the phenomenon referred to as the glass ceiling
suggests that there is only so far a woman can go in terms of advancement through corporate and institutional structures. It is true that very few top corporate positions or top government posts are filled by women. Some people believe that these few positions represent tokenism, or positive actions toward a few women to make it look as though the employer is playing fair. As a result of this glass ceiling, some women have filed discrimination suits and won. Others have taken a different path and have written extensively on the effect of gender bias on women. A 1991 book by Susan Faludi
titled Backlash: The Undeclared War against American Women describes the insidious price that the author believes has been paid for the small progress made by women in American society.


Different people respond in different ways to the effects of prejudice. Active or effective responses are ones that empower people to confront and correct bias and injustice. In contrast, passive or ineffective responses may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, low self-esteem, and racial self-hatred in reaction to the negative stereotyping effects of prejudice. Minority group members’ angry reactions to racial prejudice have been found ultimately to be a healthy response or a way to “fight back” against being oppressed. This anger, even rage, can evolve into what has been termed cultural paranoia, which is described as a defense mechanism that has allowed blacks and other minority groups to live in a society that is filled with racism. Martin Luther King, Jr., used this mechanism in a positive way to confront and to try to change racial oppression in American society.




Social and Educational Responses

Active, effective responses have been most notable in what might be called empowerment movements. Grass-roots support groups formed for women’s rights, civil rights, gay and lesbian rights, and patients’ rights resulted in various institutions and organizations being formalized by these movements. These movements and their resulting institutions represent active responses to the effects of prejudice. In the late 1980s, for example, an advocacy group for AIDS victims called ACT UP (an acronym for AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power) was formed to take dramatic measures for calling national attention to the epidemic of AIDS.


In the educational arena, efforts have taken the form of the development of prejudice-reduction programs and workshops and an intensive effort to develop a multicultural curriculum at all levels of education. A multicultural approach to education stresses educational innovations that challenge the majority culture’s views on historical and social issues and strives for inclusivity and fairness in noting the contributions of all cultures, genders, and races to society.




Historic Prejudice

In the 1960s, with the inception of the civil rights movement, the social psychology research literature began to focus in earnest on the concepts of prejudice and discrimination. In the period of time from 1954 to 1964, conflict, organized protest, civil rights marches, demonstrations, riots and acts of violence, and social injustice brought the social problems to the forefront. Researchers were drawn to investigate the complex phenomena and mechanisms of prejudice and discrimination. In 1964, an expanded Civil Rights Act was passed; this made the research all the more urgent. It has been noted, however, that during this period the broader focus of research on culture and diversity was sacrificed.


The history of prejudice is a long one. The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ushered in a particularly dark period of mass persecution of women who practiced self-healing methods and midwifery. During the medieval period, women had also been victims of religious persecution, including some who simply were homeless or had a “sharp tongue” as well as some who were probably mentally ill. All told, this period of religious persecution, led by religious male patriarchs of the time (mostly representatives of the church), resulted in hundreds of thousands of people being tortured and put to death. A key impulse underlying this massive prejudice and persecution was the Roman Catholic church’s opposition to women’s sexuality. Sexuality was seen to be insatiable in women, and lust in both genders was thought to be dangerous when not firmly controlled. This prejudice was so strong that everything from bad crops to miscarriages was blamed on women identified as witches.


The persecution and death of six million Jewish people by the Nazis is yet another—and probably the most frightening—example of the possible outcomes of extreme prejudice and discrimination. Indeed, any form of genocide is the ultimate end product of severe prejudice.




Impact of Social Movements

The women’s movement (originating in the 1900s), the gay and lesbian liberation movement, the patients’ rights movement, and the civil rights movement have all had major impacts on mitigating the effects of prejudice. As these organized political groups have gained more support, each has been instrumental in consciousness-raising; reducing prejudice, social inequity, and social injustice; and increasing political, educational, and economic opportunity for their members. Affirmative action programs continue, although they have met with criticism that they go beyond the goal of correcting inequity in hiring practices. Some people believe that these policies have led to a social phenomenon referred to as reverse discrimination (the idea that certain methods intended to reduce discrimination, such as hiring quotas, have backfired and actually lead to discrimination against members of a majority group who may be more qualified than others who are hired); however, others believe that certain groups, such as Latinos, African Americans, and Native Americans, have suffered long-term damaging effects from discrimination and therefore need the help of affirmative action programs. The language differences between English-speaking and Spanish-speaking children in the United States from a very early age begin to limit the educational and work opportunities for these children’s futures. Bilingual education is one possible avenue to maximize educational opportunities and future economic opportunities.




Social Class and Cultural Distinctions

Social class and cultural distinctions also continue to bring opportunity to some people while eliminating opportunity for those of lower socioeconomic status. Many black children and other minorities have been locked into a cycle of poverty and hopelessness that impairs educational progress and motivation at a very early age. Although some progress has been made with the funding opportunities for offspring of low-income families (such as Head Start programs), designed to pave the way for success in higher education, many programs are cut in times of economic hardship, when people need them the most. This perpetuates a cycle of poverty, with prejudice leading to economic hardship for affected groups. The term “feminization of poverty” has been used to describe the economic impact of low-wage, menial jobs on women in the United States, Puerto Rico, and other nations. Newspapers and television news frequently report acts inspired by prejudice, such as hate crimes against minorities. Violations of the civil rights of minorities still occur, leading to public outcries for examination and correction of the racial inequalities in American institutions and society. Much more progress is clearly needed in studying ways to reduce prejudice and its devastating effects.




Bibliography


Allport, Gordon W. The Nature of Prejudice. 1954. Reprint. Cambridge: Perseus, 2003. Print.



Baron, Robert A., and Donn Byrne. Social Psychology: Understanding Human Interaction. 12th ed. Boston: Allyn, 2009. Print.



Brown, Rupert. Prejudice: Its Social Psychology. 2nd ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010. Print.



Dixon, John, and Mark Levine. Beyond Prejudice: Extending the Social Psychology of Conflict, Inequality and Social Change. New York: Cambridge UP, 2012. Print.



Freeman, Howard E., and Norman R. Kurtz, eds. America’s Troubles: A Casebook on Social Conflict. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice, 1973. Print.



Jones, Melinda. Social Psychology of Prejudice. Upper Saddle River: Prentice, 2002. Print.



Lips, Hilary. Sex and Gender: An Introduction. 6th ed. Boston: McGraw, 2008. Print.



Morgan, Robin. The Demon Lover: On the Sexuality of Terrorism. New York: Pocket, 2001. Print.



Nelson, Todd D., ed. Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination. New York: Psychology, 2009. Print.



Whitley, Bernard E., and Mary E. Kite.The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination. 2nd ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2010. Print.



Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth. The Anatomy of Prejudices. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1998. Print.

Saturday, June 25, 2016

How does mama explain to Cassie about Mr. Simms and Big Ma's handling of the situation in Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry?

Mama explains that Big Ma was protecting Cassie when she made her apologize.


Cassie is like most young girls.  She is trying to figure out how the world works.  As far as she is concerned, Lillian Jean Simms is just a bratty girl and has no right to tell her what to do.  Lillian Jean  sees it differently.  She considers herself superior because she is white and Cassie is black.  Unfortunately, Lillian Jean has learned to feel this way from her society.  Cassie gets a hard lesson in race and inequality.


The incident occurs because Lillian Jean wants Cassie to get off the sidewalk.  Her brother Jeremy, who is a sort of friend of Stacey’s, tries to tell Lillian Jean that Cassie isn’t doing anything but Lillian Jean responds that Cassie is standing in front of her.  Her father pushes Cassie off the sidewalk, and demands an apology when Big Ma says they are going home. 



“Not ’fore she ’pologizes to my gal, y’all ain’t,” said Mr. Simms.


Big Ma gazed down at me, fear in her eyes, then back at the growing crowd. “She jus’ a child—”


“Tell her, Aunty—”


Big Ma looked at me again, her voice cracking as she spoke. “Go on, child . . . apologize.” (Ch. 5) 



Big Ma knows that there might be trouble if the Simmses do not get what they want.  This is why she is afraid.  She can’t stand up for Cassie then, and she can’t explain things to her.  She just has to get her to apologize so they can get out of there.  It is a terrible thing to see your granddaughter go through, but she has no choice.


Stacey tells Cassie not to blame Big Ma.  He is older, and understands the way the world works better than Cassie does.  Later, at dinner, Cassie complains that Mr. Barnett waited on the whites before the blacks in the store, and when she let him know he banned her.


Mama explains to Cassie that Big Ma was trying to protect her when she forced her to apologize to Lillian Jean.  Mr. Simms acted the way he did because as a white man, he felt superior.



“Because he’s one of those people who has to believe that white people are better than black people to make himself feel big.” (Ch. 6)



Cassie asks why he doesn’t know better.  Mama tells her this is just the way things work.  Although things have changed since the days of slavery, Mama tells her that people like the Simms hold onto the belief that they are superior because “they have little else to hold on to.”  Things are better, but still not equal.

What did the United States hope to gain from World War II?

I would argue that it is wrong to say that the US hoped to gain anything from World War II.  After all, the US was forced into this war.  It was not a war that the US chose to fight.  Once the US was in it, though, they hoped to gain an end to Japanese and German aggression and a more peaceful world order after the war.


The United States did not enter the war in order to gain anything.  Instead, the US entered the war in response to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.  The US believed that it had to fight back once it was attacked in such a major way.


Once the US entered the war, however, it of course had war aims.  Its first aim was to force Germany and Japan to surrender unconditionally.  It wanted to break those two countries, making sure that they would not have enough power to start another war.  Its second aim was to try to create a world where war would be less likely.  This was one reason it wanted to defeat Japan and Germany in such a total way.  The US also wanted to create a better world order after the war.  For example, it wanted to create the United Nations to give countries a better way to interact with one another and to solve their disputes.


Thus, the US hoped to gain peace from WWII.  The country wanted to utterly defeat their enemies and then to set up a world order that would make later wars less likely to occur.

Friday, June 24, 2016

What is the relationship between media and behavioral addictions?


The Influence of Media

Just as controversy continues over a link between video games and violent behavior, so too is society divided over the role of media in behavioral addictions. The only certainty is that Internet addictions did not exist before the invention of the Internet and television addictions did not exist before television.




An increasing number of health professionals believe that behavioral addictions are caused by a combination of social, physiological, mental, and emotional factors. Media is now implicated as a contributing factor and, in some cases, a primary influence. In response to such research, broadcast, print, and digital media have been using their roles as the purveyors of information, commentary, and entertainment to educate and shape public attitudes while opening up a national dialogue about behavioral addictions.


While the general public and the medical community have grappled with the exact definitions of sex addiction and other types of behavioral addictions, talk-show hosts have been featuring therapists discussing the behavior of celebrities, including professional golfer Tiger Woods and actor David Duchovny, who had checked into sex addiction rehabilitation clinics after their sexual behaviors became public knowledge. Sexual addictions are acknowledged and discussed in popular media, but have not been officially recognized by the medical community. Popular news shows have been featuring neurobiologists and other scientists discussing the relationship of behavioral addictions to brain chemistry and the genetic link to addictions.


Television shows such as Lifetime’s Love Sick: Secrets of a Sex Addict (2008) and Logo’s reality show Bad Sex use sex addictions as fodder for entertainment while also enlightening viewers about twelve-step programs and other types of therapy. Other television shows, such as A&E's Intervention showcases the destructive effects of substance abuse on the lives and families of addicts. Others, like TLC's My Strange Addiction chronicles the lives of various people who exhibit unusual compulsive behaviors, such as eating couch cushions. Memoirs, such as Ryan G. Van Cleave’s Unplugged: My Journey into the Dark World of Video Game Addiction (2010) or Peach Friedman’s Diary of an Exercise Addict (2009), and articles in Time, Newsweek, the New York Times, and other publications examine the personal costs of addiction and offer caution to readers who spend too much time jogging or playing computer games, for example. The result of all this attention has been increased awareness of the potentially devastating effects of behavioral addictions, while addictive behavior has been destigmatized.


However, the mass media’s tendency to confuse mental health terminology or to overuse words, such as addict, has led to misunderstandings about behavioral addictions. For example, when journalists write about “dark chocolate addiction” or “golf addiction” they are referring not to clinical addictions but to activities or objects that give people enormous pleasure and might not be easily substituted. Such activities would become genuine eating or exercise addictions only when consuming dark chocolate or playing golf interferes with work or important relationships, or when the tolerance level changes so that more and more chocolate or golf is required to maintain the same level of pleasure, or when the activity is continued despite repeated or prolonged health issues caused by the activity, or when withdrawal causes emotional, physical, and mental harm.


Some of this confusion is directly related to the need to attract readers and viewers. Sensationalism, including sex addiction, sells. Hence, perhaps the most glaring misuse of the term addict came during the sensational coverage of sex scandals involving Jesse James, Tiger Woods, Eliot Spitzer, Dominique Strauss-Kahn, and others. Little consensus exists among journalists and the general public as to whether the behavior of these men constituted a sex addiction or represented immoral behavior. Also, their motives for checking into sex addiction rehab clinics raised additional questions. And, while the humanization of addicts through television shows such as Intervention can help alleviate the stigmas around addiction, many forms of media can still enforce or proliferate stigmas, such as the negative treatment of recovering addict Lindsay Lohan in popular media. The general media can also glamorize addictions, such as with Amy Winehouse, which can also have negative effects on the public's perception of living with addiction.




Images in the Media

Numerous studies have shown that children and young adults in particular are especially vulnerable to what they see on television, read in print, and view on the Internet. The link between smoking and drinking alcohol and the promotion of those activities in the media was established decades ago, and government policies were established to keep young people from smoking and drinking.


Although not as much research has been conducted on the effect of media on behavioral addictions, the evidence has been pointing in the same direction. Despite research findings, the US Supreme Court lifted restrictions on gambling advertisements, and few policies are in place to limit other types of potentially influential media.


Just as an increase in anorexia nervosa has been linked to the pervasive portrayal of ultrathin women and slim, muscular men in advertising and film, so too is the increase in exercise addictions being linked to this objectification of men and women. While running, cycling, bodybuilding, and other sports are often started with good intentions, a person can become addicted to that sport if he or she begins to question how they appear and perform.


The constant attention given to the rich, beautiful, and famous is playing a role in shopping and gambling addictions. In addition, advertisements for credit cards can operate as powerful lures to a shopping addict in need of more money, while the proliferation of televised blackjack tournaments and lottery games, which often feature sexy, powerful players, can be influential among young adults and others who might be vulnerable to gambling addictions for other reasons. Young adults also are especially vulnerable to sexually oriented advertisements and to the depiction of sex in film and on television.




Addictions to Media and Media Technologies


Compulsive television watching, the first behavioral addiction to be identified in the age of modern technology, continues to be problematic. The availability of online video and streaming through sites such as Netflix enables binge watching and can exacerbate the problem. Television addicts often become compulsive eaters too. With the addition of online shopping and mobile shopping applications, as well as shopping television channels such as QVC and the Home Shopping Network, compulsive shoppers can obtain instant gratification. DVD and video players have allowed closet pornography addicts to watch in their own homes, and now the availability of streaming video on the Internet provides pornography on demand.


The Internet has made many other addictions possible, including cybersex, computer gaming, social media, and online shopping. People who are already dealing with low self-esteem, anxiety, or depression are especially vulnerable to the anonymity offered by the Internet, to the opportunity to create an alternative persona, or to the sense of belonging or instant gratification offered by social media. Internet addictions are increasing at an alarming rate, especially among college-aged students and adult men, as smartphones and tablet computers make it easy and convenient to access email and websites everywhere and at any time.




Bibliography


Bowen, Matthew W., and Marvin Firestone. “Pathological Use of Electronic Media: Case Studies and Commentary.” Psychiatric Quarterly 82.3 (2011): 229–38. Print.



Clark, Neils, and P. Shavaun Scott. Game Addiction: The Experience and the Effects. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009.



Dill, Karen E. How Fantasy Becomes Reality: Seeing through Media Influence. New York: Oxford UP, 2009.



Horvath, Cary W. “Measuring Television Addiction.” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 48.3 (2004): 378–98. Print.



Johnson, Nicola F. The Multiplicities of Internet Addiction: The Misrecognition of Leisure and Learning. Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2009.



King, Daniel, Paul Delfabbro, and Mark Griffiths. “The Convergence of Gambling and Digital Media: Implications for Gambling in Young People.” Journal of Gambling Studies 16.2 (2009): 175–87. Print.



Kuss, Daria J., and Mark D. Griffiths. "Online Social Networking and Addiction—A Review of the Psychological Literature." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8.9 (2011): 3528–52. Print.



Lee, Chris. “This Man Is Addicted to Sex.” Newsweek 158.23 (2011): 48–55. Print.



Ley, David J. The Myth of Sex Addiction. New York: Rowman, 2012.



Rutledge, Pamela Brown. “Social Media Addiction: Engage Brain Before Believing.” 22 May 2010. Web. 26 Apr. 2012. http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/positively-media/201005/social-media-addiction-engage-brain-believing.

Thursday, June 23, 2016

What would you like to say to Nnaemeka's father at the end of the story? Explain.

Chinua Achebe's short story "Marriage is a Private Affair" details the conflict which arises when a man and a woman from different ethnic groups want to get married. Nnaemeka, an Ibo man, is hesitant to tell his socially conservative father about his impending marriage to Nene, an Ibibio woman.


Nnaemeka's reluctance is correct, and even when he sends his father a picture of the couple's wedding, the father cuts out Nene and sends it back. The marriage is quite the topic of debate and hand-wringing by the Ibo men in the village where Nnaemeka grew up. Even in the more modern city of Lagos, the couple has problems as the Ibo women are slow to acknowledge Nene.


Nevertheless, by all accounts the couple is very happy and the marriage produces two sons who, as soon as they learn about their grandfather, want to see him. This is the news that begins to break down the grandfather's attitude. In the final line of the story he hopes he won't die before he makes up with his son and his wife. Hopefully, he will see the family as soon as possible.


Achebe's stance is that in modern Africa the barriers of tribe vs. tribe and ethnic group vs. ethnic group should end. The old prejudices need to be put away for the sake of domestic tranquility. The grandfather could make a small step toward ending the old cultural biases by accepting his daughter-in-law. He could be an example to the men of his village who still believe in the old customs which have no place in the 20th century.


The father obviously loves his son, so it should not be that difficult for him to open his arms to the woman his son loves and certainly not to his own grandsons. The reader would simply tell the grandfather to put away the old attitudes and embrace the new world. He should show his love unequivocally for his son by seeing the family and giving them his best wishes. He did a good job of raising a productive, open-minded son, so he should definitely have a part in raising his grandsons.

Wednesday, June 22, 2016

What does the speaker's mood have to do with time and place in Dover Beach?

In the poem, the speaker is looking out the window at Dover Beach by night.  The title and first stanza of the poem describe this setting.  It is a calm night.  The coast of France is visible across the channel; the famous white cliffs of Dover are "glimmering and vast;" the scene is "tranquil."  A reference to "the moon-blanched land" lets us know that the moon is full or nearly full.  


This is a time and place that would fill most people with a sense of well-being.  They might find it calm, beautiful, or romantic.  But surprisingly, that is not what the speaker takes from this particular time and place.  Instead, it reminds him of "the turgid ebb and flow/Of human misery."  By the end of the poem, after thinking about the desolateness of the human experience, he has almost descended into nihilism.  


Apart from the obvious inference that the speaker brings some of his own despairing mood to the beautiful scene, the thing that seems to set his thoughts on their dark path is the "grating roar/Of pebbles which the waves draw back and fling,/At their return, up the high strand."  Apparently he is close enough to the beach to hear this sound.  If he were only able to see the beautiful scene, perhaps it would give a peaceful impression.  But the sound of the pebbles, which is jarring, somewhat irregular, and relentless, is a rude reminder of the realities of a beach (the sea is rough with things and people), and so, of the realities of life.  It may be a case of a beautiful scene being ruined by a little too much detail.

Tuesday, June 21, 2016

What is Waardenburg syndrome?


Risk Factors

Individuals without a family history presumably have de novo (sporadic) mutations. Advanced paternal age is a risk factor for sporadic mutations including those that cause WS. The new mutation rate is estimated at 0.4 per 100,000. Both sexes and people of all races are affected equally, with an overall prevalence of 1 in 32,400–42,000.











Etiology and Genetics

WS is a genetically heterogeneous group of conditions. Approximately 96 percent of individuals who meet the diagnostic criteria for WSI have a detectable mutation (90 percent) or a whole or partial gene deletion (6 percent) of the PAX3 gene located on chromosome 2q35. PAX3 mutations have also been found in individuals with WSIII. Mutations in the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) gene, located on chromosome 3p14.1-p12.3, are found in approximately 15 percent of individuals with WSII. Additional subtypes of WSII have been linked to other loci including 1p, 8p23, 8q11 (SNAI2), and 22q13 (SOX10). WSIV is associated with mutations in the endothelin-B-receptor gene (EDNRP) on chromosome 13q22, the endothelin-3 gene (EDN3) on 20q13.2-q13.3, and the SOX 10 gene on 22q13.


WS is inherited in both an autosomal dominant (AD) and autosomal recessive (AR) manner. AD refers to a type of condition that can be inherited by a single parent. A person who is heterozygous (one working gene and one nonworking gene) is affected with the condition. The recurrence risk for the offspring of individuals who are affected is 50 percent. AR refers to a type of condition that has to be inherited by both parents. A person who is heterozygous is referred to as a carrier and is unaffected. When two carriers of the same nonworking gene have children, they have a 25-percent chance of having a child homozygous (with two nonworking genes) and thus, of having a child affected with the condition. WS types I, II, and in some cases IV (when SOX10) are AD. When WSIII occurs in families it is AD; however, it is usually sporadic. There have also been cases reported of individuals with WSIII who are homozygous for PAX3 mutations. WS type IV (when EDNRP and EDN3) is AR.


The genes that cause WS are important in the regulation of melanocyte development. Melanocytes produce melanin, which contributes to the pigmentation of skin, hair, and eye color and is important for the proper function of the cochlea. Mutations in any of these genes may result in hearing loss and changes in pigmentation. Genes responsible for WSIV (SOX10, EDN3, or EDNRB) are involved in the development of nerve cells in the large intestine, leading to problems related to Hirschsprung’s disease. All forms of WS show marked interfamilial and intrafamilial variability, indicating that modifier genes probably play a role in the expression of the disease.




Symptoms

Major features of WS include sensorineural hearing loss, a white forelock or premature graying of the hair, different colored eyes (one blue and one brown), and patchy skin dipigmentation. WSI is associated with dystopia canthorum, a condition in which the inner corners of the eyes are spaced farther apart than normal. WSII appears similar to WSI without dystopia canthorum. The principal feature of WSIII is musculoskeletal anomalies of the upper limbs, including hypoplasia (underdevelopment), contractures, and syndactyly (fused fingers). WSIV includes features of type II combined with Hirschsprung’s disease.




Screening and Diagnosis

The Waardenburg Consortium has proposed clinical diagnostic criteria. Molecular genetic testing may be available to confirm the diagnosis, clarify risks for family members, and provide prenatal diagnosis. Testing is offered clinically for all types. Population screening for WS is not available.




Treatment and Therapy

There is no cure for WS. Treatment depends on manifestations as appropriate. Often the most significant complication is hearing loss; benefits are gained from early detection and treatment with hearing aids or cochlear implants. Individuals may also require orthopedic interventions or treatment for Hirschsprung’s disease. For optimal care, patients should see a variety of specialists, including a clinical geneticist, genetic counselor, otolaryngologist, audiologist, speech-language pathologist, and possibly an ophthalmologist, dermatologist, craniofacial surgeon, and gastrointestinal specialist.




Prevention and Outcomes

Prenatal or preimplantation genetic diagnoses are available if the cause is known. Women at risk of having a child with WSI are recommended to take folic acid supplementation. Most individuals with WS have normal intelligence and live long, productive lives.




Bibliography


Bansal, Yuvika, et al. "Waardenburg Syndrome: A Case Report." Contact Lens and Anterior Eye 36.1 (2013): 49–51. Print.



Farrer, L. A., et al. “Waardenburg Syndrome (WS) Type I Is Caused by Defects at Multiple Loci, One of Which Is Near ALPP on Chromosome 2: First Report of the WS Consortium.” American Journal of Human Genetics 50 (1992): 902–13. Print.



Garg, Uma, and Ritesh Surana. "Waardenburg Syndrome 2." Indian Journal of Otology 18.4 (2012): 220–22. Print.



Kontorinis, Georgios, et al. "Inner Ear Anatomy in Waardenburg Syndrome: Radiological Assessment and Comparison with Normative Data." International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology 78.8 (2014): 1320–26. Print.



Newton, V. E. “Clinical Features of the Waardenburg Syndromes.” Advances in Oto-Rhino-Laryngology 61 (2002): 201–8. Print.

Give two specific examples from "The Tell-Tale Heart" that the author uses to create an atmosphere of horror or suspense. These are sentences that...

The narrator's description of the old man's "vulture eye" and its effect on him certainly helps to create suspense in the story.  He says, "Whenever [the eye] fell upon me, my blood ran cold; and so by degrees—very gradually—I made up my mind to take the life of the old man, and thus rid myself of the eye forever." We do not know precisely why the old man's eye so incenses, so horrifies the narrator, and the narrator's resolution to kill the man as a means to ridding himself of the sight of this eye creates suspense and gives us a clue that there is something very seriously wrong with him.


Further, the narrator's continued insistence that he is, in fact, sane, as well as his description of how sneakily and slowly he moved into the old man's room, heightens the tense mood of the story and increases our suspense. He says, "[...] I resolved to open a little—a very, very little crevice in the lantern. So I opened it—you cannot imagine how stealthily, stealthily—until, at length a simple dim ray, like the thread of the spider, shot from out the crevice and fell full upon the vulture eye." He insists that the care he takes during this process proves that he is only suffering from an "over-acuteness of the sense" and that he is not insane. His stealthiness and his certainty certainly increase the story's horror.


Moreover, his description of the sound he believes to be the old man's heart both before he kills him and after he's buried him under the floorboards makes the mood seem very eerie. He says that it sounded like a "watch [...] when enveloped in cotton." However, it is both impossible that he should hear the man's heart from across the room and from beneath his feet after the old man is dead. Therefore, we know that there is really something wrong with this narrator, and this creates suspense and horror as well.

Monday, June 20, 2016

`sum_(j = 1)^10 (3 - 1/2 j + 1/2 j^2)` Find the sum using formulas for the sums of powers of integers.

You need to evaluate the given sum using formulas for the sums of powers of integers, such that:


`sigma_(j=1)^10 (3 - (1/2)j  +(1/2)j^2) = sigma_(j=1)^10 3 - (1/2)sigma_(j=1)^10 j + (1/2)sigma_(j=1)^10 j^2`


`sigma_(j=1)^10 3 = 3 + 3 + .. + 3 = 10*3 = 30`


`sigma_(j=1)^10 j = 1 + 2 + .. + 10`


You need to remember that `sigma_(n=1)^n k = ((n(n+1))/2)`


Replacing 10 for j yields:


`sigma_(j=1)^10 j = 10(10+1)/2 = 5*11`


`sigma_(j=1)^10 j^2 = 1^2 + 2^2 + ...+ 10^2`


You need to remember that `sigma_(n=1)^n k^2 = ((n(n+1)(2n+1))/6)`


Replacing 10 for n yields:


`sigma_(j=1)^10 j^2 = ((10(10+1)(2*10+1))/6)`


`sigma_(j=1)^10 j^2 = (10*11*21)/6 = 5*11*7 = 35*11`


Evaluating the sum, yields:


`sigma_(j=1)^10 (3 - (1/2)j  +(1/2)j^2) = 30 - (1/2)*5*11 + (1/2)*35*11`


`sigma_(j=1)^10 (3 - (1/2)j  +(1/2)j^2) = (60 - 55 + 385)/2 = 195`


Hence, evaluating the given sum using formulas for the sums of powers of integers, yields `sigma_(j=1)^10 (3 - (1/2)j  +(1/2)j^2) = 195.`

What is the significance of Macbeth's soliloquy in Act 5, scene 5, considering the themes of the text, Shakespeare's use of language, the...

This soliloquy is really a culminating moment in the play, addressing Macbeth's development and some of the play's themes. Both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth have said that it is worthless to get what one wants when one cannot be happy once one has it.  Now, Macbeth describes the pace of life as "petty," implying that it is both slow and small.  Further, we are all just "fools" on our way to our inevitable deaths. 


Macbeth uses a number of metaphors that betray his disgust with life at this point in his own.  The comparison of life to a candle shows just how insignificant and fragile it is.  A candle can be snuffed out in a moment and only produces a very small bit of light.  Next, he compares life to an actor who performs for his time on the stage. This comparison makes the drama of life seem insignificant and even unreal, as though it is all a show. Finally, he compares life to an idiot's story, one that makes lots of noise, but ultimately it makes no sense and has no real meaning.  The metaphors help to show how dissatisfied Macbeth is, even though he has done everything to satisfy his own ambition.  Despite this fact, he still feels that life is hollow and futile.


The position of this speech within the text, just before Macbeth goes to face Macduff, shows us his state of mind going into this fight.  He is more than dissatisfied; he realizes that he has nothing to live for.  His wife is gone, he has no family or friends, and he is basically ready to be done.  Macbeth will fight because it is what he should do, but his heart is not in it. 

Friday, June 17, 2016

Is emotion the most likely influence of a person's behavior?

I believe that your question is asking to make a comparison between emotion and logic.  If that is the case, then yes, I believe that emotion is most likely to influence a human decision more than logic and reasoning.  Advertising companies believe it too.  That is why so many advertisements try to get you emotionally involved.  Truck commercials tug on the patriotic emotional heart strings.  Breakfast cereal commercials make it seem like you'll be a better parent if you buy a certain product.  Jeep commercials sell you the feeling of power, control, and masculinity.  The list can go on and on.  Nigel Holis works in the advertising business and wrote the following:



Instead, it [advertisement] creates positive memories and feelings that influence our behavior over time to encourage us to buy something at a later date. 



I linked the rest of the article below.  Notice that he doesn't claim advertisements try to activate logical brain centers.  He says that the ads target feelings that influence our behaviors.  


I absolutely agree that emotion influences teenagers more than logic.  Until recently, I could only give anecdotal evidence to support those feelings.  But many brain studies have come out that show that the logic based centers of the brain are not fully developed until the age of 25, while the emotional based centers of the brain are fully operational by the teenage years.  This means that when I ask a teenager "what were you thinking?" when he/she does something dumb, that teenager can legitimately say "I wasn't thinking, I was feeling."  I linked a summary from the National Institutes of Health below.  


Yes, emotion is a very powerful influence on people. 

Are truth and justice themes in The Journey to the West?

Truth and justice are very important themes in this book. In fact, one could make the argument that they are the central themes of the book. The titular journey can be seen as an archetypal quest for truth, and the paths that each character takes can be seen as the embodiment of justice.


The scriptures that the main characters are traveling to get literally and figuratively represent truth. The scriptures contain some of the holiest teachings of the Buddhist faith, and adherents believe they are literally true. Figuratively, the represent reaching true happiness and turning away from hedonism and self-absorption.


The theme of justice is most obvious in the premise of the story. All of the main characters have committed one crime or another, and their punishment is to go on an arduous journey to obtain the sutras. Justice is also evident in a positive manner when each character is awarded a post in heaven after successfully completely the quest. 

Thursday, June 16, 2016

From the play "The Diary of Anne Frank," why do you think the playwright chose to omit the information about Anne's grandmother?

The playwrights Albert Hackett and Frances Goodrich probably omitted the information about Anne's grandmother in order to fit more vital information into the play's predetermined length of time. In the book itself, Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl, there are only a few sentences that mention Anne's grandmother. Furthermore, Anne started writing in her diary after her birthday in 1942. The first entry is Sunday, 14 June, 1942, which was almost six months after her grandmother died the previous January. Since the grandmother died before the Franks went into hiding in early July of 1942, not only is there little information written about her in Anne's diary, but she did not take part in the main focus of the play, which is living in the Secret Annex for two years. Therefore, there was no reason to include Anne's grandmother in the script of the play.

Wednesday, June 15, 2016

`x - 2y = 7, 6x + 2y = 5` Find the angle theta (in radians and degrees) between the lines

Given: 


`x-2y=7`


`6x+2y=5`



Find the slope for line 1.


`x-2y=7`


`-2y=-x+7`


`y=1/2x-7/2`


The slope of line 1 is `m_1=1/2.`



Find the slope of line 2.


`6x+2y=5`


`2y=-6x+5`


`y=-3x+5/2`


The slope line 2 is `m_2=-3.`



Find the slope between two lines using the formula


`tan(theta)=|(m_2-m_1)/(1+m_1m_2)|`



`tan(theta)=|((-3)-(1/2))/(1+(1/2)(-3))|=7`



`theta=arctan(7)=81.9^@=1.4289` radians



The angle between the two lines is 81.9 degrees or 1.4289 radians.

What does the act of hiding the charter mean to the king in Elizabeth George Speare's The Witch of Blackbird Pond?

Chapter 15 of Elizabeth George Speare's The Witch of Blackbird Pond gives an account of an actual a legendary event in which the colonists of Massachusetts hid their charter in an effort to maintain their sovereign control over their own territory, an act of insubordination against King James II, an act that really meant little to the king since he was still able to gain full control over the New England colonies.

After King James II succeeded Charles II, he immediately set about creating what was called Dominion of New England, in which the charters of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island were revoked; the colonies were then merged into one territory ruled solely by King James II ("What Was the Dominion of New England," History of Massachusetts). Prior to the creation of the Dominion of New England, each colony had its own charter that gave the colony complete freedom to govern its territory as it pleased, with complete control over the legal and court system.

In 1687, the year in which the novel is set, the king's appointed governor of New York, Andros, was sent by the king to Connecticut to revoke the charter. Governor Andros arrived at a General Assembly meeting held at Hartford and, just as William Ashby relays in Chapter 15, according to the legend, the room grew dark, candles were asked to be lit, the room grew hot, "someone opened a window, [and] the draft blew out the candles." William further relays that, while the candles were out, someone stole the charter. According to historical legend, the charter had been taken by Captain Joseph Wadsworth and hid in a hallow oak tree outside of Hartford ("Hiding the Charter," Connecticut History).

The purpose of hiding the charter was to prevent it from being revoked so that Connecticut could maintain its own sovereignty. It was an act of rebellion against the king and a denial of his power. However, the gesture was merely symbolic, since Governor Andros was still able to revoke the charter. Fortunately, William and Mary succeeded James II in 1689 and restored the charters of New England.

In the play The Diary Of Anne Frank, how did Peter have an impact on Anne's life?

In the 1955 dramatic adaptation of The Diary of Anne Frank by Frances Goodrich and Albert Hackett, Anne and Peter’s relationship evolves over the course of the play.


Early in the play, Anne and Peter have a relationship like brother and sister, innocently teasing and playing with each other in a comfortable, familiar way. Before moving into the attic hiding space, Peter knew of Anne from school, but he was quiet and reserved, a “lone wolf,” while Anne was more popular and outgoing. A hint that their relationship may start to change is Anne’s Christmas gift to Peter, a razor. This gift shows she is starting to notice him becoming a man. The gift is also special in that it is one of the only items that she did not make or repurpose, but had Miep buy.


Anne and Peter grow closer in act two when they share more intimate feelings with each other about their frustrations about living in the claustrophobic attic. They become each other’s confidantes. Anne confesses that she used to think Peter was “a nothing,” but now she even wants to share her diary with him because “there are so many things in it that I want to talk over with you.” This shows the growing trust Anne has for Peter.


Peter serves an important role for Anne, as an emerging romantic interest but, more importantly, as a trusted friend.

Tuesday, June 14, 2016

What is electroencephalography (EEG)?


Indications and Procedures

Clinical Electroencephalography (EEG) uses from eight to sixteen pairs of electrodes called derivations. The “international 10-20" system of electrode placement provides coverage of the scalp at standard locations denoted by the letters F (frontal), C (central), P (parietal), T (temporal), and O (occipital). Subscripts of odd for left-sided placement, even for right-sided placements, and z for midline placement further define electrode location. During the procedure, the patient remains quiet, with eyes closed, and refrains from talking or moving. In some circumstances, however, prescribed activities such as hyperventilation may be requested. An EEG test is used to diagnose seizure disorders, brain-stem disorders, focal lesions, and impaired consciousness.



Electrical potentials caused by normal brain activity have atypical amplitudes of 30 to 100 millivolts and irregular, wavelike variations in time. The main generators of the EEG are probably postsynaptic potentials, with the largest contribution arising from pyramidal cells in the third cortical layer. The ongoing rhythms on an EEG background recording are classified according to the frequencies that they produce as delta (less than 3.5 hertz), theta (4.0 to 7.5 hertz), alpha (8.0 to 13.0 hertz), and beta (greater than 13.5 hertz). In awake but relaxed normal adults, the background consists primarily of alpha activity in occipital and parietal areas and beta activity in central and frontal areas. Variations in this activity can occur as a function of behavioral state and aging. Alpha waves disappear during sleep and are replaced by synchronous beta waves of higher frequency but lower voltage. Theta waves can occur during emotional stress, particularly during extreme disappointment and frustration. Delta waves occur in deep sleep and infancy and with serious organic brain disease.




Uses and Complications

During neurosurgery, electrodes can be applied directly to the surface of the brain (intracranial EEG) or placed within brain tissue (depth EEG) to detect lesions or tumors. Electrical activity of the cerebrum is detected through the skull in the same way that the electrical activity originating in the heart is detected by an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) through the chest wall. The amplitude of the EEG, however, is much smaller than that of the ECG because the EEG is generated by cells that are not synchronously activated and are not geometrically aligned, whereas the ECG is generated by cells that are synchronously activated and aligned. Variations in brain wave activity correlate with neurological conditions such as epilepsy, abnormal psychopathological states, and level of consciousness such as during different stages of sleep.


The two general categories of EEG abnormalities are alterations in background activity and paroxysmal activity. An EEG background with global abnormalities indicates diffuse brain
dysfunction associated with developmental delay, metabolic disturbances, infections, and degenerative diseases. EEG background abnormalities are generally not specific enough to establish a diagnosis—for example, the “burst-suppression” pattern may indicate severe anoxic brain injury as well as a coma induced by barbiturates. Some disorders do have characteristic EEG features: An excess of beta activity suggests intoxication, whereas triphasic slow waves are typical of metabolic encephalopathies, particularly as a result of hepatic or renal dysfunction. Psychiatric illness is generally not associated with prominent EEG changes. Therefore, a normal EEG helps to distinguish psychogenic unresponsiveness from neurologic disease. EEG silence is an
adjunctive test in the determination of brain death, but it is not a definitive one because it may be produced by reversible conditions such as hypothermia. Focal or lateralized EEG abnormalities in the background imply similarly localized disturbances in brain function and thus suggest the presence of lesions.


Paroxysmal EEG activity consisting of spikes and sharp waves reflects the pathologic synchronization of neurons. The location and character of paroxysmal activity in epileptic patients help clarify the disorder, guide rational anticonvulsant therapy, and assist in determining a prognosis. The diagnostic value of an EEG is often enhanced by activation procedures, such as hyperventilation, photic (light) stimulation, and prolonged ambulatory monitoring, or by using special recording sites, such as nasopharyngeal leads, anterior temporal leads, and surgically placed subdural and depth electrodes. During a seizure, paroxysmal EEG activity replaces normal background activity and becomes continuous and rhythmic. In partial seizures
, paroxysmal activity begins in one brain region and spreads to uninvolved regions.




Perspective and Prospects

One of the most important uses of EEGs has been to diagnose certain types of epilepsy and to pinpoint the area in the brain causing the disturbance. Epilepsy is characterized by uncontrollable excessive activity in either all or part of the central nervous system and is classified into three types: grand mal epilepsy, petit mal epilepsy, and focal epilepsy. Additionally, EEGs are often used to localize tumors or other space-occupying lesions in the brain. Such abnormalities may be so large as to cause a complete or partial block in electrical activity in a certain portion of the cerebral cortex, resulting in reduced voltage. More frequently, however, a tumor compresses the surrounding nervous tissue and thereby causes abnormal electrical excitation in these areas.


Some researchers predict new uses of EEG technology in the future, although many of these applications appear dubious. Attempts to interpret thought patterns so that an EEG could serve as a lie detector or measurement of intellectual ability, for example, have proven unsuccessful.




Bibliography


Daube, Jasper R., ed. Clinical Neurophysiology. 3d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.



Ebersole, John S., and Timothy A. Pedley, eds. Current Practice of Clinical Electroencephalography. 3d ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003.



Evans, James R., and Andrew Abarbanel, eds. Introduction to Quantitative EEG and Neurofeedback. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press, 2004.



Hayakawa, Fumio, et al. “Determination of Timing of Brain Injury in Preterm Infants with Periventricular Leukomalacia with Serial Neonatal Electroencephalography.” Pediatrics 104, no. 5 (November, 1999): 1077–1081.



Health Library. "Electroencephalogram." Health Library, May 21, 2013.



Jasmin, Luc. "EEG." MedlinePlus, February 16, 2012.



Mayo Clinic. "EEG (Electroencephalogram)." Mayo Clinic, May 19, 2011.



Powledge, Tabitha M. “Unlocking the Secrets of the Brain: Part II.” Bioscience 47, no. 7 (July/August, 1997): 403–408.



Ricker, Joseph H., and Ross D. Zafonte. “Functional Neuroimaging and Quantitative Electroencephalography in Adult Traumatic Head Injury: Clinical Applications and Interpretive Cautions.” Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 15, no. 2 (April, 2000): 859.

Monday, June 13, 2016

What is mucormycosis?


Definition

Mucormycosis is a serious infection caused by a fungus that
affects the sinuses, brain, and lungs. The infection occurs most often in people
who have a compromised immune system. The prognosis is usually poor, even with treatment.















Causes

The fungus is often found in soil and in decaying plants. It will not make most people sick. People are more likely to get the infection if they have a weakened immune system.




Risk Factors

The factors that increase the chance of developing mucormycosis include having
a weakened immune system caused by diabetes, acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome, leukemia, or lymphoma; recently
receiving an organ transplant; long-term steroid use; treatment with deferoxamine
(an antidote to iron poisoning); metabolic acidosis (too much acid in the blood);
having a sinus infection or pneumonia; and having mucormycosis of
the gastrointestinal tract, skin, or kidneys.




Symptoms

Symptoms of mucormycosis depend on the location of the infection. Infections of
the sinuses and the brain (rhinocerebral mucormycosis) include acute sinusitis,
fever, swollen or protruding eyes, dark nasal scabs, and redness of the skin over
the sinuses. Symptoms of infections of the lungs (pulmonary mucormycosis) include fever, cough, coughing up blood, and
shortness of breath. Symptoms of infections of the gastrointestinal tract (gastrointestinal mucormycosis) include abdominal pain and vomiting
blood. Symptoms of infections in the kidneys (renal mucormycosis) include fever and pain in the side between the
upper abdomen and the back.




Screening and Diagnosis

A doctor will ask about symptoms and medical history and will perform a
physical exam. Tests might include a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan
(a scan that uses radio waves and a powerful magnet to produce detailed computer
images), a computed tomography (CT) scan (a detailed X-ray picture that
identifies abnormalities of fine tissue structure), and an analysis of a tissue
sample.




Treatment and Therapy

Treatment options for mucormycosis include aggressive surgery to remove all the dead or infected tissue; early surgery may improve the prognosis. Another treatment is antifungal therapy, in which IV antifungal medications are used to kill the fungus throughout the body; even with this treatment, however, the prognosis is usually poor.




Prevention and Outcomes

The fungus that causes mucormycosis is found in many places, so avoiding contact with it is difficult. The best prevention is to control or prevent the conditions related to this infection.




Bibliography


Alcamo, I. Edward. Microbes and Society: An Introduction to Microbiology. 2d ed. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett, 2008.



Murray, Patrick R., Ken S. Rosenthal, and Michael A. Pfaller. Medical Microbiology. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby/Elsevier, 2009.



Radha, S., et al. “Gastric Zygomycosis (Mucormycosis).” Internet Journal of Pathology 5, no. 2 (2007).



Roden, M. M., et al. “Epidemiology and Outcome of Mucormycosis: A Review of 929 Reported Cases.” Clinical Infectious Diseases 41, no. 5 (September, 2005): 634-653.



Sugar, A. M. “Agents of Mucormycosis and Related Species.” In Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, edited by Gerald L. Mandell, John F. Bennett, and Raphael Dolin. 7th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2010.

How does the choice of details set the tone of the sermon?

Edwards is remembered for his choice of details, particularly in this classic sermon. His goal was not to tell people about his beliefs; he ...