Friday, May 31, 2013

What is dark energy and why does it affect the expansion of the universe?

The universe is thought to be made of regular matter, dark matter, and dark energy. Scientists do not know what dark energy is. The two leading theories about dark energy are called the cosmological constant theory and the quintessence theory. Each of these theories explains the expansion of the universe in different ways.



  • Cosmological Constant Theory: This theory suggests that dark energy is the energy associated with the vacuum of space. As such, it would have remained unchanged over the history of the universe. If this theory is correct, dark energy would drive the constant acceleration of the cosmos.


  • Quintessance Theory: In this theory, dark energy would change over time. The acceleration of the cosmos would increase over time potentially causing the universe to eventually tear itself apart. This idea is known as "The Big Rip."

There are other theories that suggest that dark energy doesn't exist at all and cosmic acceleration is related to something happening with gravity.

Thursday, May 30, 2013

Imagine that you are Canterville ghost. Describe the Otis family as you see them.

Cool question.  I am not allowed to write it out word for word for you though.  I will try and steer you in the right direction though.  Based on how I read the writing prompt, it sounds like you need to write about your initial impressions about the Otis family.  Obviously Sir Simon's opinions of the Otis family change as the story progresses.  He actually gets more and more frightened and frustrated with the family as the story goes on.  


However, in the beginning of the story, Sir Simon is likely overconfident in his ability to scare off the Otis family.  He has a right to be confident as well.  He has been successfully scaring off owners of the Canterville chase for hundreds of years.  


I would focus your description on things that you know for sure about the Otis family early on.  They are a married husband and wife.  There are three children.  I would focus on the children.  The twins and Virginia are your way in to scaring the family.  Kids should be easy to scare.  Twin young boys should make you lick your lips with anticipation at how easy this is going to be.  Virginia should be making you think that your job will be easy as well.  She's a 15 year old girl, which means she is likely an emotional roller coaster that probably has daddy wrapped around her finger.  I would also have something in your description about how the Otis family appears to be quite overconfident.  Perhaps even stupid or naive.  The reason for that is because they have been told about the presence of the ghost, but they completely blow it off.  Lastly, I would mention that they are American. 



When Mr. Hiram B. Otis, the American Minister, bought Canterville Chase, every one told him he was doing a very foolish thing, as there was no doubt at all that the place was haunted. . . "But there is no such thing, sir, as a ghost, and I guess the laws of Nature are not going to be suspended for the British aristocracy."


What is histology?


Types of Tissues

Histology is the study of tissues, which are groups of similar cells that are closely interrelated in their function and are organized together by location and structure. The four major types of tissues are epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.




Epithelial tissue (or epithelia) includes those tissues that originate in broad, flat surfaces. Their functions include protection, absorption, and secretion. Epithelia can be one-layered (simple) or multilayered (stratified). Their cells can be flat (squamous), tall and thin (columnar), or equal in height and width (cuboidal). Some simple epithelia have nuclei at two different levels, giving the false appearance of different layers; these tissues are called pseudostratified. Some simple squamous epithelia have special names: The inner lining of most blood vessels is called an endothelium, while the lining of a body cavity is called a mesothelium. Kidney tubules and most small ducts are also lined with simple squamous epithelia. The pigmented layer of the retina and the front surface of the lens of the eye are examples of simple cuboidal epithelia. Simple columnar epithelia form the inner lining of most digestive organs and the linings of the small bronchi and gallbladder. The epithelia lining the Fallopian tube, nasal cavity, and bronchi are ciliated, meaning that the cells have small hairlike extensions called cilia.


The outer layer of skin is a stratified squamous epithelium; other stratified squamous epithelia line the inside of the mouth, esophagus, and vagina. Sweat glands and other glands in the skin are lined with stratified cuboidal epithelia. Most of the urinary tract is lined with a special kind of stratified cuboidal epithelium called a transitional epithelium, which allows a large amount of stretching. Parts of the pharynx, larynx, urethra, and the ducts of the mammary glands are lined with stratified columnar epithelia.


Glands are composed of epithelial tissues that are highly modified for secretion. They may be either exocrine glands (in which the secretions exit by ducts that lead to targets nearby) or endocrine glands (in which the secretions are carried by the bloodstream to targets some distance away). The salivary glands in the mouth, the glandular lining of the stomach, and the sebaceous glands of the skin are exocrine glands. The thyroid gland, the adrenal gland, and the pituitary gland are endocrine glands. The pancreas has both exocrine and endocrine portions; the exocrine parts secrete digestive enzymes, while the endocrine parts, called the islets of Langerhans, secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon.



Connective tissues are tissues containing large amounts of a material called extracellular matrix, located outside the cells. The matrix may be a liquid (such as blood plasma), a solid containing fibers of collagen and related proteins, or an inorganic solid containing calcium salts (as in bone).


Blood and lymph are connective tissues with a liquid matrix (plasma) that can solidify when the blood clots. In addition to plasma, blood contains red cells (erythrocytes), white cells (leukocytes), and the tiny platelets that help to form clots. The many kinds of leukocytes include the so-called granular types (basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils, all named according to the staining properties of their granules), the monocytes, and the several types of lymphocytes. Lymph contains lymphocytes and plasma only.


Most connective tissues have a solid matrix that includes fibrous proteins such as collagen and also elastic fibers, in some cases. If all the fibers are arranged in the same direction, as in ligaments and tendons, the tissue is called regular connective tissue. The dermis of the skin, however, is an example of an irregular connective tissue in which the fibers are arranged in all directions. Loose connective tissue and adipose (fat) tissue both have very few fibers. The simplest type of loose connective tissue, with the fewest fibers, is sometimes called areolar connective tissue. Adipose tissue
is a connective tissue in which the cells are filled with fat deposits. Hemopoietic (blood-forming) tissue, which occurs in the bone marrow and the thymus, contains the immature cell types that develop into most connective tissue cells, including blood cells. Cartilage tissue matrix contains a shock-resistant
complex of protein and sugarlike (polysaccharide) molecules. Cartilage cells usually become trapped in this matrix and eventually die, except for those closest to the surface. Bone tissue gains its supporting ability and strength from a matrix containing calcium salts. Its typical cells, called osteocytes, contain many long strands by means of which they exchange nutrients and waste products with other osteocytes, and ultimately with the bloodstream. Bone also contains osteoclasts, large cells responsible for bone resorption and the release of calcium into the bloodstream.


Mesenchyme is an embryonic connective tissue made of wandering amoebalike cells. During embryological development, the mesenchyme cells develop into many different cell types, including hemocytoblasts, which give rise to most blood cells, and fibroblasts, which secrete protein fibers and then usually differentiate into other cell types.



Muscle tissues are tissues that are specially modified for contraction. When a nerve impulse is received, the overlapping fibers of the proteins actin and myosin slide against one another to produce the contraction. The three types of muscle tissue are smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and skeletal muscle.


Smooth muscle contains cells that have tapering ends and centrally located nuclei. Muscular contractions are smooth, rhythmic, and involuntary, and they are usually not subject to fatigue. The cells are not cross-banded. Smooth muscle occurs in many digestive organs, reproductive organs, skin, and many other organs.


The term “striated muscle” is sometimes used to refer to cardiac and skeletal muscle, both of which have cylindrical fibers marked by cross-bands, which are also called cross-striations. The striations are caused by the lining up of the contractile proteins actin and myosin.


Cardiac muscle occurs only in the heart. Its cross-striated fibers branch and come together repeatedly. Contractions of these fibers are involuntary and rhythmic, and they occur without fatigue. Nuclei are located in the center of each cell; the cell boundaries are marked by dark-staining structures called intercalated disks.


Skeletal muscle occurs in the voluntary muscles of the body. Its cylindrical, cross-striated fibers contain many nuclei but no internal cell boundaries; a multinucleated fiber of this type is called a syncytium. Skeletal muscle is capable of producing rapid, forceful contractions, but it fatigues easily. Skeletal muscle tissue always attaches to connective tissue structures.



Nervous tissues contain specialized nerve cells (neurons) that respond rapidly to stimulation by conducting nerve impulses. All neurons contain RNA-rich granules, called Nissl granules, in the cytoplasm. Neurons with a single long extension of the cell body are called unipolar, those with two long extensions are called bipolar, and those with more than two long extensions are called multipolar. There are two types of extensions: Dendrites conduct impulses toward the cell body, while axons generally conduct impulses away from the cell body. Many axons are surrounded by a multilayered fatty substance called the myelin sheath, which is actually made of many layers of cell membrane wrapped around the axon.


Nervous tissues also contain several types of neuroglia, which are cells that hold nervous tissue together. Many neuroglia have processes (projections) that wrap around the neurons and help nourish them. Among the many types of neuroglia are the tiny microglia and the larger protoplasmic astrocytes, fibrous astrocytes, and oligodendroglia.


Two major tissue types make up most of the brain and spinal cord, or central nervous system. The first type, gray matter, contains the cell bodies of many neurons, along with smaller amounts of axons, dendrites, and neuroglia cells. The second type, white matter, contains mostly the axons, and sometimes also the dendrites, of neurons whose cell bodies lie elsewhere, along with the myelin sheaths that surround many of the axons. Clumps of cell bodies are called nuclei within the brain and ganglia elsewhere. Bundles of axons are called tracts within the central nervous system and nerves in the peripheral nervous system.




Histology as a Diagnostic Tool

Many diseases produce changes in one or more body tissues; these changes are so characteristic that the diagnosis of a disease often depends on the microscopic observation of changes in tissues. For such a diagnosis to be made, the tissue must be sliced very thin on a machine called a microtome. Some tissues are sliced while frozen; others must be hardened (or “fixed”) in chemical solutions. After being sliced, the tissue is usually stained with chemical dyes that make viewing easier. Some tissues are viewed under a light microscope; others are sliced even thinner for viewing by electron microscopy.


Most hospitals have a pathology department that is responsible for these operations. After the tissues are sliced and examined, the pathologist makes a report that usually includes a diagnosis of the disease shown by the tissue samples.


Many diseases result in marked changes in the tissue at the microscopic level. Adaptively altered changes, which are usually reversible, include an increase in cell size (hypertrophy), increase in cell numbers (hyperplasia), a change from one cell or tissue type to another (metaplasia), and a decrease in size by withering (atrophy). Prolonged or repeated insults to the tissue may result in altered or atypical growth patterns (dysplasia). Overwhelming or sustained injury results in irreversible changes such as tissue degeneration or death. Tissue degeneration often includes the accumulation of abnormal amounts of fatty, fibrous, or pigmented tissue. Tissue death in a body that goes on living is called necrosis, and it may be of several types. If tissue death exceeds a certain limit, then the death of the organism results. Once this occurs, the tissues usually release protein-digesting enzymes that digest their own cell contents, a process known as autolysis.


Changes to cellular organelles can often be seen with an electron microscope before they become apparent at the light microscope level. Disturbances of the cell membrane may alter the flow of fluids (especially water) and cause changes to occur in the fluid composition of the cytoplasm. Too much fluid may result in swelling and eventually in bursting of the cells; too little fluid results either in shrinkage or in the coagulation of proteins. Swelling may also be induced by the lack of oxygen flow to the mitochondria, which can also result in the deposition of fats or calcium. The increase in the water content of the cells can also cause swelling in the endoplasmic reticulum and the detachment of ribosomes from the surfaces of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Most damaging of all are the disturbances of the lysosomes, which can release their protein-digesting enzymes and cause autolysis.


At the light microscope level, other changes that may result from disease processes include the coalescence of numerous dropletlike vacuoles into a single, large, fluid-filled space. Other changes that may indicate disease are abnormal cell shapes, changes in the proportion of blood cells, and the rupture of cell membranes or other structures. Substances that may accumulate in diseased cells include glycogen (a sugar storage product), fibrous deposits of collagen and other proteins, and mineral deposits such as calcium salts. Abnormalities of the nucleus may include nuclear fragmentation, loss of the staining properties of the nucleus, or pyknosis, a shrinkage of the nucleus that also includes the clumping of its chromosomal material.



Edema, or tissue swelling, is a condition that can easily be confirmed by microscopic examination of histological sections. The swelling is marked by an increase in the amount of extracellular fluid. In the case of pulmonary edema, the fluid stains pink and fills the usually empty lung spaces (alveoli).


A different type of change is seen in Barrett’s esophagus, a condition caused by the repeated backflow (or reflux) of gastric fluids into the esophagus. The inner lining of the esophagus is usually a stratified squamous epithelium, but in Barrett’s esophagus the surface cells become taller, and the lining is changed into a columnar epithelium resembling that of the stomach.


Most cancers are recognized by abnormalities of the affected tissues, usually including more cells in the process of cell division (mitosis). The most dangerous cancers are marked by large tumors with ill-defined, irregular margins. If the cancer tumor is well-defined, small, and has a smooth, circular margin, the cancer is much less of a threat.


In juvenile diabetes, histological examination of the pancreas reveals a greatly reduced number of pancreatic islets, and those that remain are smaller and more fibrous. Herpes simplex infection causes the epidermal cells of the skin to undergo a buildup of fluid and a consequent balloonlike swelling. Warts of the skin are marked by a thickening of the outermost layer (stratum corneum) of the epidermis. Pernicious anemia, or vitamin B12 deficiency, results in a deterioration of the glands in the stomach lining. Crohn’s disease produces swelling of the affected parts of the intestine, deposition of fat and lymphoid tissue, and ultimately tissue loss and deposition of fibrous scar tissue; the affected parts typically alternate with healthy regions. Cirrhosis of the liver, which is most commonly the result of chronic alcohol abuse, proceeds through a fatty stage (marked by deposition of fatty tissue), a fibrotic stage (marked by small nodules and scars), and an end stage marked by abnormal shrinkage (atrophy) of liver tissue, scars, and larger nodules up to 1 centimeter in diameter. Emphysema, a lung disease found in many smokers, is recognizable histologically by an enlargement of the air spaces and by the presence of black, tarlike deposits within the lung tissue. Fibrocystic changes of the breast may be marked by the deposition of fibrous tissue, by increasing cell numbers, and by the enlargement of the glandular ducts.



Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), a connective tissue disease, often produces red skin lesions marked by degeneration and flattening of the lower layers of the epidermis, drying and flaking of the outermost layer, dilation of the blood vessels under the skin, and the leakage of red blood cells out of these vessels, adding to the red color. (The word “erythematosus” means “red.”)



Muscular dystrophy has several forms; the most common form is marked in its advanced stages by enlarged muscles in which the muscle tissue is replaced by a fatty substance. Another muscular disease, myasthenia gravis, is often marked by overall enlargement of the thymus and an increase in the number of thymus cells. Myocardial infarction (heart attack ), a form of heart disease marked by damage to the heart muscle, is indicated in histological section by dead, fibrous scar tissue replacing the muscle tissue in the heart wall. In patients with arteriosclerosis, the usually elastic walls of the arteries become thicker and more fibrous and rigid. Many of the same patients also suffer from atherosclerosis, a buildup of deposits on the inside of the blood vessels that partially or completely blocks the flow of blood.


In nervous tissue, damage to peripheral nerves often results in a process called chromatolysis in the cell bodies of the neurons from which these axons arise. The nuclei of these cells enlarge and are displaced to one side, while the Nissl granules disperse and the cell body as a whole undergoes swelling. Increased deposits of fibrous tissue characterize multiple sclerosis and certain other disorders of the nervous system. Some of these diseases are also marked by a degeneration of the myelin sheath around nerve fibers. In the case of a cerebrovascular stroke, impaired blood supply to the brain causes degeneration of the neuroglia, followed by general tissue death and the replacement of the neuroglia by fibrous tissue. Cranial hematoma (abnormal bleeding in any of several possible locations) results in the presence of blood clots (complete with blood cells and connective tissue fibers) in abnormal locations. Alzheimer’s disease is marked by granules of a proteinlike substance called amyloid, often containing aluminum, surrounded by additional concentric layers of similar composition. Advanced stages of alcoholism are marked in brain tissue by the destruction of certain neurons and neuroglia. Poliomyelitis, or polio, is marked by the destruction of nervous tissue in the anterior horn of the spinal cord.




Perspective and Prospects

The microscopic study of tissues began historically with Robert Hooke’s Micrographia (1665) and the studies of Marcello Malpighi (1628–94), but early microscopes were low in quality by today’s standards. As microscopes improved, so did their use in studying tissues. During the 1830s, the Scottish botanist Robert Brown (1773–1858) discovered the cell nucleus. Soon, German biologists Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804–81) and Theodor Schwann (1810–82) developed the so-called cell theory, which proclaimed that all living things are constructed of cells and that all biological processes are rooted in processes occurring at the level of cells and tissues. The greatest advances in microscopic optics were made between 1870 and 1900, mostly in Germany, and the study of histology benefited greatly.


The great pathologist Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) was the first to emphasize the structural changes in cells caused by the disease process; he showed that many diseases could be detected at the cellular level under the microscope. This claim, coupled with enthusiasm for the cell theory, aroused great interest in the study of cells throughout Europe and later in America. Advances in tissue-staining techniques in microanatomy were made in various countries over a long period; the Czech histologist and physiologist Jan Evangelista Purkinje (1787–1869) was one of the leaders of this early period. Early in the twentieth century, histologists Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934) of Spain and Camillo Golgi (1844–1926) of Italy shared the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their detailed work on the tissue structure of the nervous system. In the decades after World War II, the electron microscope became a standard instrument for the ultrafine study of tissue details at and even below the cellular level. Today, pathology laboratories routinely use the microscopic examination of tissues as an important tool in diagnosis.




Bibliography


Fawcett, D. W. A Textbook of Histology. 12th ed. New York: Chapman & Hall, 1994.



Junqueira, Luiz Carlos, and José Carneiro. Junqueira’s Basic Histology: Text and Atlas. 13th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2013.



Kerr, Jeffrey B. Atlas of Functional Histology. Reprint. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier, 2006.



Kessel, Richard G. Basic Medical Histology: The Biology of Cells, Tissues, and Organs. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.



Lewin, Benjamin. Genes. 9th ed. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett, 2008.



Ross, Michael H., and Wojciech Pawlina. Histology: A Text and Atlas. 6th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2011.



"SIU SOM Histology." Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, August 2, 2013.

Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Visitors to our country treat us as we are unintelligent because we are underdeveloped. Especially if we express opinions they do not agree with....

"Visitors to our country treat us as we are unintelligent because we are underdeveloped."


a) Article Usage: The sentence does not have any articles and does not need them; therefore, there are no errors in article usage.


b) As vs. Like: The word "as" is used incorrectly here but substituting "like" wouldn't really work for formal English, although it would constitute an improvement. The best solution would be correcting it to "as if we were unintelligent" since it is a counterfactual conditional, requiring a subjunctive mood. The error in the way "as" is used does make the sentence syntactically unintelligible.


c) Comma: Commas are used after initial subordinate clauses but are not used when the subordinate clause occurs at the end of the sentence. An additional comma is not needed. 


d) Infinitive: The sentence does not contain an infinitive. 

Why is the time repeated over and over in "There Will Come Soft Rains"?

The repetition of the time by the house is one of Bradbury's literary expressions of science and technology substituting for human thought. After the nuclear blast, this repetition becomes meaningless, demonstrating the absurdity of this substitution of technology for humanity.


In the narrative of Bradbury's story, when the time is announced, various objects appear in order to enable the residents of the house to conduct their routine activities. For instance, at "Two thirty-five," as it is written in the narrative, the bridge tables emerge from the patio walls. Playing cards and all that is needed for the card game are set out by automation. Then, at four o'clock, the tables fold themselves and are automatically taken back through the walls' panels. Next, the house announces "Four-thirty" and the activity for this appointed time commences. Thus, the time is announced throughout the day with its mindless regimentation of the inhabitants' lives. Absurdly, the house continues its routine even when the residents are no longer there.



The house was an altar with ten thousand attendants, big, small, servicing, attending, in choirs. But the gods had gone away, and the ritual of the religion continued senselessly, uselessly.



For all its convenience and capabilities, technology cannot substitute for real human thought and creativity. Because the house has continued to senselessly fill bathtubs and sinks with water according to its programming, the reserve supply is depleted; consequently, when a fire starts on the stove, the house's scurrying water rats and wall sprays cannot extinguish this blaze and the house is destroyed. 


Throughout many of his literary works, Ray Bradbury expresses his fears that technology may surpass its value and in its power become a detriment and even a destructive force to humanity. "There Will Come Soft Rains" is a story that demonstrates humankind's growing dependency upon a dehumanizing technology as well as a lack of control over some of our scientific developments. Certainly, the nuclear blast that kills the family exemplifies technology out of control.

Tuesday, May 28, 2013

For the purpose of an essay, what are some overarching lessons that could be taken from ancient societies to shape and guide our present society?

There are two very important lessons that we can draw from various ancient civilizations in order to improve or guard against the repetition of similar mistakes. First, from looking at the Mayan Civilization, and others like it, whose capital cities seemed to have grown very rapidly in population by expanding its agricultural production, we can see that the over-reliance on natural resources and a lack of planning for downside risks to resources (such as drought, famine, et cetera) can lead to catastrophic results. As far as archeologists can tell, the Mayans' population centers relied heavily on the farming of just core crops to feed their population. This practice of relying on just a few crops for the sustenance of many was quite common. But when the climate shifted just a bit, and became dryer and perhaps warmer, those crops failed en masse. As a result, historians today theorize that many Mayans fled the large cities of that empire, while others fought over food, and still others starved.


Today, our civilization is heavily dependent on a wider variety of crops and other resources, but catastrophic climate change seems to have begun, and while we are better equipped than the Mayans to adapt, we still are highly reliant on fossil fuels, cheap and abundant sources of clean drinking water, and crops that also require a great deal of water in order to produce. Like the Mayans, we have failed to plan for a worst case scenario, or at least, we have failed to plan adequately. Should the changes to our climate happen more rapidly than we have predicted, which seems to be the case, we could be caught very flat footed and many people could die as a result. Humans have never been very good at long term planning. Hopefully, we will become at it.


A somewhat similar analogy can be made from looking at the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, which were both built right next to the long-dormant volcano, Vesuvius. The fertile ground that volcanic soil produces made those cities very wealthy and successful, and although some scholars from that time understood that Vesuvius was at one time an active volcano, they ignored the possible risks that the mountain might become active again. So in 79 AD, because the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum had not planned for a worst case scenario, the majority of the inhabitants of both cities were wiped out.


Today, many Japanese live next to Mount Fuji, which is an active volcano. The land is very fertile but the risk is similar. Others around the globe live in tsunami zones, and still others (like the residents of Miami and New Orleans) live in hurricane zones. The risks they face are enormous and well known. Our government and private sector does a poor job of dis-incentivising people to live in such places, even though we know that a catastrophic weather is not a matter of if, but when.


We humans still have not learned to fully face up to the downside risks of how we live, even when the evidence tells us that we should.

What is robotic surgery?




Robotic surgery, also called robot-assisted surgery, is a growing medical field. It involves trained surgeons using specialized robotic tools to enhance their own skills and surgical capabilities. Despite misconceptions, machines involved in robot-assisted surgery cannot act on their own. A robot's operator directly dictates every move a robot makes.




Though robotic surgery is becoming more popular, its use is controversial among some medical professionals. Some experts claim that surgical robots allow surgeons to make smaller, steadier, and more precise movements. Others argue that using a robot reduces a surgeon's own sensory input, increasing the chances of a surgeon making mistakes. Despite concerns, more than 1.7 million robot-assisted surgeries were performed in the United States between 2004 and 2013, and this number continues to grow.




Minimally Invasive Surgery

In standard surgeries, also called open surgeries, a surgeon makes a large incision in a patient's body to give the surgeon access to the interior body. In minimally invasive surgery, also called keyhole surgery, a surgeon makes one or more very small incisions in a patient's body. The surgery area then is inflated with carbon dioxide, and a tiny camera is inserted into one of the incisions. This allows the surgeon to see inside the patient without having to make a large incision. Next, the surgeon inserts long, specially designed tools through the other incisions. The surgeon uses these tools to perform the operation. The surgeon removes the tools and closes the incisions when the surgery is complete. If complications arise that cannot be repaired through minimally invasive means, the operation is converted to an open surgery.


Because of the lack of large incisions, patients who receive minimally invasive surgery normally lose less blood and recover more quickly than patients who receive open surgeries. In most circumstances, patients who receive minimally invasive surgery also recover with little visual scarring. However, minimally invasive surgery does have downsides. This method of surgery is more difficult for surgeons than open surgery, and surgeons need to be specially trained for minimally invasive operations.




Modern Robotic Surgery

Robot-assisted surgery is a form of minimally invasive surgery. In robotic surgery, several mechanical arms of a robot are inserted into the patient through small incisions. These contain cameras and a variety of surgical tools. The surgeon sits away from the robot at a console equipped with a screen showing a three-dimensional video feed from the cameras inside the patient. Sensitive controls on the console allow the surgeon to maneuver the robot's arms in any direction. These controls scale down the surgeon's movements, which means if the surgeon moves the controls one inch, the robot may only move one-eighth of an inch. Additionally, the robot is programmed to remove the tremors that could occur in surgeons' hands during long operations. These tools allow the surgeon a degree of precision impossible with human hands alone.


Robot-assisted operations have become popular, and surgeons perform numerous robot-assisted surgeries every year throughout the world. Despite the advantages, reactions to robot-assisted surgery have been mixed. Proponents of robotic surgery argue that robots allow surgeons greater precision, maneuverability, and a significantly larger field of vision than the traditional tools for minimally invasive surgery. However, critics argue that using a robot removes the surgeon's sense of touch, making it harder for the surgeon to notice mistakes. Robotic surgery also tends to take longer than traditional surgery. Several complications related to robot-assisted surgery have been reported and include internal burns, lacerations, and organ damage. However, in these cases, both operator errors and robot malfunctions were to blame. Lastly, surgical robots are extremely expensive. Robot-assisted surgery may cost patients thousands of dollars more than minimally invasive or open procedures.


Published medical studies about robot-assisted surgery have reported conflicting results. Because this technology is still relatively new, few extensive studies have been conducted. Some studies report that robot-assisted surgery causes less complications than minimally invasive surgery, while other report that it causes more complications. Other factors such as surgeon errors or lack of practice with surgical robots further influence robotic surgery studies.




Future of Robotic Surgery

Experts believe that robot-assisted surgery will continue to advance. They assert that as the market for surgery robots grows, robots will become more affordable and shrink in size, allowing hospital staff to acquire more robots and quickly move them between operating rooms. In addition, scientists and engineers are experimenting with robots that allow multiple surgeons to work on a single patient at once and robots that simulate a sense of touch for the surgeon.


Robotic surgery has allowed surgeons to conduct procedures over large distances. In 2001, a surgeon in New York used robotic technology to successfully operate on a patient in France. As this technology becomes more common, surgeons will be able to operate on patients throughout the world without having to leave their home hospitals. The United States Department of Defense has plans to create a remote surgical station for wounded soldiers in war zones by 2025. Eventually, surgeons hope to conduct emergency operations on patients in outer space.




Bibliography


Bradley, Ryan. "Meet Your Next Surgeon: Dr. Robot." Fortune. Time Inc. 15 Jan. 2013. Web. 10 Feb. 2015. http://fortune.com/2013/01/15/meet-your-next-surgeon-dr-robot/



Carr, Katie. "Study Questions Safety of Popular Robotic Surgical Device." Coordinated Science Lab. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 3 Apr. 2014. Web. 10 Feb. 2015. http://csl.illinois.edu/news/study-questions-safety-popular-robotic-surgical-device



Eveleth, Rose. "The Surgeon Who Operates from 400km Away." BBC Future. BBC. 16 May 2014. Web. 11 Feb. 2015. http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20140516-i-operate-on-people-400km-away



Greenberg, Herb. "Patients Scarred After Robotic Surgery." CNBC. CNBC LLC. 19 Apr. 2013. Web. 10 Feb. 2014. http://www.cnbc.com/id/100652694#



Greenemeier, Larry. "Robotic Surgery Opens Up." Scientific American. Nature America, Inc. 11 Feb. 2014. Web. 10 Feb. 2015. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/robotic-surgery-opens-up/



Lanfranco, Anthony R., et al. "Robotic Surgery: A Current Perspective." Annals of Surgery. Medscape. 2004. Web. 10 Feb. 2015. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/466691_8



Moylan, Tom. "Da Vinci Surgical Robot Maker Reserves $67M to Settle Product Liability Claims." LexisNexis. Reed Elsevier. 9 Apr. 2014. Web. 10 Feb. 2015. http://www.lexisnexis.com/legalnewsroom/litigation/b/litigation-blog/archive/2014/04/09/da-vinci-surgical-robot-maker-reserves-67m-to-settle-product-liability-claims.aspx

Monday, May 27, 2013

Is violence an effective or destructive political tool in the writings of Fanon & Gandhi? To what extent is such violence justified?

For Fanon, violence is definitely an effective political tool in the fight against colonialism. He is emphatic on this point. In his book "The Wretched of the Earth," Fanon describes colonialism as a system that totally dehumanizes both the colonizer and the colonized. He explains: "The Negro enslaved by his inferiority, [and] the white man enslaved by his superiority, alike behave in accordance with a neurotic orientation." Fanon argued that only the colonized could break this enslavement, thus freeing both colonizer and colonized. For Fanon, violence was personal power and political agency. In a system where colonized people had been stripped of so much of their autonomy, Fanon saw in violence a chance to assert one's humanity. "Violence is man re-creating himself," he claimed.


Gandhi spoke often on the issues of violence, non-violence, cowardice, and self-defense. An ardent practitioner of both religious and political nonviolence, Gandhi nonetheless accepted the use of violence as a last resort: "I would rather have India resort to arms in order to defend her honour than that she should, in a cowardly manner, become or remain a helpless witness to her own dishonor."


As to whether the use of violence was justified in Algeria and/or India, this depends largely on one's personal belief system. Some will say violences was justified, even necessary, considering the abuses and horrors of British colonialism. Some believe the use of force is never justified, even in cases of self-defense - let alone for reasons of nationalism. Between these positions are many colors, subtleties, and nuances.


It's hard to say what is justified and what is not, especially in hindsight. After all, we know what happened in Algeria and India, and our knowledge of what happened will probably paint our judgements about what folks should or should not have done at the time. These hypothetical do raise important questions though. Historically, violence has been the primary tactic of war. We might ask, is there such thing as a non-violent war? In what situations (if any) might war be necessary? What are the true causes of war? What are the costs, and what are the benefits?


Why do independence movements so often take the form of armed conflict? Certainly there are models for non-violent independence. India is a well-known example. Canada declared independence from Britain in 1867 without an ounce of bloodshed. Yet, throughout history, the model of bloody revolt is widespread and pervasive. Why? These are interesting questions to think about. Trying to answer them for ourselves can help us to clarify our own values and beliefs.

Where can I find a research article on HIV/AIDS?

In order to determine where to find a research article, the researcher must consider the following: the type of article needed, the possible location of the article, and the amount of information needed. 


In this case, one journal article about HIV/AIDS is needed. The best type of articles for research are peer-reviewed journal articles. In order to meet the requirements for a peer-reviewed journal article, the author must following certain steps and meet a defined set of criteria. The author first writes the article and submits it to a journal. The article is then reviewed by a board of experts in the authors field. The board reviews the article and determines its validity and academic rigor. If the author's peers determine the article is valid and provides appropriate research and methods, the article is accepted. 


Peer reviewed journal articles about HIV/AIDS can be found using an online database in the school library, such as JSTOR or EBSCO.  Peer reviewed journal articles may also be found on the world wide web. 

What is histrionic personality disorder (HPD)?


Introduction

Of all psychiatric conditions, personality disorders are perhaps the most controversial. Nevertheless, virtually all researchers agree that they are disorders in which maladaptive and inflexible personality traits cause impairment. Although some personality disorders are distinguished by the suffering they produce in affected individuals, others are distinguished by the suffering they inflict on others. Histrionic personality disorder (HPD) falls into the latter category.








History

HPD traces its roots to hysteria, from Greek hysterikos (“wandering womb”), a concept with origins in ancient Egypt and Greece. Hysteria was thought to be a state of excessive emotionality and irrational behavior in women caused by a migration of the uterus to the brain. Derogatory views of hysterical women continued throughout the Middle Ages, but in the centuries that followed, writers proposed that hysteria was not limited to women and was a condition of the brain rather than the uterus. In the late 1800’s, French neurologist Jean Charcot used hypnosis to relieve conversion symptoms (deficits in sensory or motor function brought about by psychological factors) in hysterics. In doing so, Charcot approached hysteria as psychological rather than physiological in etiology. One doctor intrigued by the seeming efficacy of the new technique was the young Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud. This early work with hysterical patients laid the groundwork for his theories of the unconscious.


Following World War II, a classification manual was developed by the American Psychiatric Association in an attempt to unify the array of diagnostic systems that were being used. This manual, the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM), has seen many versions and has remained standard in the mental health field. Hysterical personality was not included in the first DSM (1952, DSM-I) but is similar to the DSM-I description of “emotionally unstable personality.”




Description

In 1958, two American psychiatrists, Paul Chodoff and Henry Lyons, delineated the primary characteristics of hysterical personality. Among these core features were vanity, theatrical behavior, and coy flirtatiousness. DSM-II (1968) introduced the primary diagnosis of hysterical personality, with “histrionic personality” in parenthesis. The DSM-III (1980) marked an official shift in the nomenclature to “histrionic personality,” and “hysterical personality” was dropped completely.


The DSM-V (2013) describes the contemporary stance on the features of HPD, which have not changed significantly from the previous edition of the DSM. The essential feature is “pervasive and excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior.” Their vivacious and energetic manner initially may charm new acquaintances. However, such characteristics often grow tiresome as it becomes apparent that these individuals’ energy is directed primarily at gaining attention at any cost. They frequently use flamboyant displays of emotion, self-dramatization, and sexual suggestiveness to get attention. Their speech is often vague and tends toward global impressions without supporting details (for instance, they may declare enthusiastically that the film they just saw was wonderful but be unable to say why). Distorted interpersonal functioning is also characteristic of persons with HPD; they may accord relationships an unrealistic level of intimacy (such as introducing a casual acquaintance as “my dear friend”) and are also easily influenced by others.


Many associated features of HPD (those that are not formally included in the diagnostic criteria) reflect the poor relationships experienced by these individuals; true emotional intimacy, whether with romantic partners or platonic friends, is often absent. They tend not to trust their partners and often manipulate them. Friends may become alienated by these individuals’ constant demands for attention and sexually provocative behavior.




Prevalence and Demographic Correlates

Data from the general population indicate a prevalence rate of HPD of 2 to 3 percent. Higher rates, from 10 to 15 percent, are reported in clinical settings, with much of this variation probably attributable to differences in diagnostic measures used across studies. Although HPD has traditionally been viewed as a disorder of women, researchers in clinical settings have typically reported only a slight female predominance or, in some cases, approximately equal rates in men and women.


Although research examining cultural differences in HPD is scant, some researchers hypothesize that different social norms may produce disparate rates of this condition across cultures. For example, the impropriety of overt sexuality in Asian society could result in lower rates of HPD, whereas the spontaneous emotionality valued in Hispanic and Latin American society could lead to higher rates. Nevertheless, there are few systematic data addressing this possibility.




Relations to Other Disorders

Other personality disorders can be difficult to distinguish from HPD. Borderline personality disorder
is classified by the same attention-seeking and manipulative behavior as HPD but differentiated from HPD by self-destructiveness, angry interpersonal relations, and persistent feelings of emptiness. Antisocial personality disorder
and HPD both include reckless, seductive, and manipulative tendencies, but the former condition is distinguished by antisocial and often criminal acts. Persons with narcissistic personality disorder
similarly strive for attention but usually as a means of validating their superiority rather than satisfying interpersonal and sexual needs. Dependent personality disorder is characterized by the same reliance on others for approval and guidance but tends to lack the theatrical behaviors of HPD.


Further complicating the diagnosis of HPD are its high rates of co-occurrence with other conditions. Among the conditions that overlap the most frequently with HPD are somatization disorder (characterized by multiple bodily complaints for which there is no discernible medical cause), dissociative disorders (characterized by disruptions in identity, memory, or consciousness), and dysthymic disorder (a chronic form of relatively mild depression).




Causes and Treatment

Finally, little is known about either the causes or treatment of HPD. Although some authors, such as American psychiatrist C. Robert Cloninger, have argued that this condition is an alternative manifestation of antisocial personality disorder that is more common in women than in men, the evidence for this hypothesis is equivocal. Some psychodynamic theorists have conjectured that HPD stems from cold and unloving interactions with parents. Nevertheless, there is little research support for this hypothesis. Cognitive explanations of HPD typically focus on the underlying assumptions (such as, “Without other people, I am helpless”) characteristic of this condition. It is not clear, however, whether these explanations provide much more than descriptions of the thinking patterns of individuals with HPD.


A variety of treatments for HPD have been developed. These treatments include behavioral techniques, which focus on extinguishing inappropriate (such as dependent, attention-seeking) behaviors and rewarding appropriate (that is, independent) behaviors, and cognitive techniques, which focus on altering irrational assumptions (such as the belief that one is worthless unless constantly showered with attention). Nevertheless, because no controlled studies have examined the efficacy of these or other techniques, it is not known whether HPD is treatable.




Bibliography


Bornstein, Robert F. “Dependent and Histrionic Personality Disorders.” Oxford Textbook of Psychopathology, ed. Theodore Millon, Paul H. Blaney, and Roger D. Davis. New York: Oxford UP, 1999. Print.



Chodoff, Paul, and Henry Lyons. “Hysteria, the Hysterical Personality, and 'Hysterical' Conversion.” American Journal of Psychiatry 114 (1958): 734-740. Print.



O’Donohue, William T., Katherine Alexa Fowler, and Scott O. Lilienfeld, eds. Personality Disorders: Toward the DSM-V. Los Angeles: Sage, 2007. Print.



Pfohl, Bruce. “Histrionic Personality Disorder.” The DSM-IV Personality Disorders. Ed. W. John Livesley. New York: Guilford, 1995. Print.



Sarkar, Jaydip, and Gwen Adshead. Clinical Topics in Personality Disorder. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2012. Print.



Shapiro, David. “Hysterical Style.” Neurotic Styles. New York: Basic, 2000. Print.



Veith, Ilza. Hysteria: The History of a Disease. Northvale: Aronson, 1993. Print.



Widiger, Thomas A. The Oxford Handbook of Personality Disorders. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. Print.

What is psychotherapy for children?


Introduction

Various psychological techniques designed to treat children’s behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems are used in psychotherapy with children. The number of children with psychological disorders underscores the need for effective child psychotherapy: the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported in 2013 that an estimated 13 to 20 percent of children in the United States experienced a mental disorder each year from 2005 to 2011, and that the prevalence of these conditions increased between 1994 and 2011. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, CDC data collected as part of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey between 2000 and 2004 also showed that only about half of the children ages eight to fifteen with mental disorders were treated for their disorder within the past year.













Children, like adults, may experience many different kinds of psychological disorders. For example, in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-IV-TR; rev. 4th ed., 2000), published by the American Psychiatric Association, nearly forty separate disorders that primarily affect children are listed. This number does not include many disorders, such as major depressive disorder, which primarily affect adults but may also affect children. In DSM-5 (5th ed., 2013), however, children's disorders no longer have a separate chapter. Instead, each diagnostic chapter is organized chronologically, with diagnoses primarily affecting children listed before those affecting adolescents and adults. In general terms, children’s disorders can be divided into two major categories: externalizing and internalizing disorders.




Externalizing and Internalizing Disorders

Externalizing disorders are those in which children engage in activities that are physically disruptive or are harmful to themselves or others. An example of this type of disorder is conduct disorder. Conduct disorder is characterized by children’s involvement in a continued pattern of behavior that demonstrates a fundamental disregard for the safety or property of others. In contrast to externalizing disorders, internalizing disorders create greater emotional distress for the children themselves than for others around them. An example of an internalizing disorder is generalized anxiety disorder, in which the child experiences persistent, unrealistic anxiety regarding numerous situations and events, such as peer acceptance or school grades.




Types of Treatment

Psychoanalytic Therapy

In response to the prevalence and variety of childhood disorders, many different treatments have been developed to address children’s psychological problems. Historically, the earliest interventions for addressing these problems were based on psychoanalytic theory, developed by Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis is a type of psychotherapy based on the idea that individuals’ unconscious processes, derived from early childhood experiences, are responsible for the psychological problems they experience as adults. One of the first therapists to adapt Freud’s psychoanalysis to the treatment of children was Anna Freud, his daughter.


Psychoanalysis had to be modified for the treatment of children because of its heavy reliance on individuals’ verbalizing their unconscious thoughts and feelings. Anna Freud realized that children would not be able to verbalize regarding their experiences to the extent necessary for effective treatment. Therefore, beginning in the 1920s, she created play therapy, a system of psychotherapy in which children’s responses during play provided information regarding their hidden thoughts and feelings. Although play therapy had its roots in Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis, this type of therapy came to be associated with other systems of psychotherapy. For example, Virginia Axline demonstrates her version of play therapy in the 1964 book Dibs: In Search of Self; her approach is based on Carl R. Rogers’s person-centered therapy.




Behavior Therapy

In addition, in the 1920s, Mary Cover Jones was applying the principles of behavior therapy developed by John B. Watson and others to the treatment of children’s fears. Behavior therapy rests on the notion that all behavior, whether adaptive or maladaptive, is learned and thus can be unlearned. Jones’s treatment involved reconditioning, a procedure in which the object of which the child is afraid is gradually associated with a pleasurable activity. By regularly associating the feared object with a pleasurable activity, Jones was able to eliminate children’s fears.




Family Therapy

Although early child analysts and behaviorally oriented psychologists attributed many children’s problems to difficulties within their family environments, these treatment providers’ primary focus was on treating the children, not their parents. In the early 1940s, however, Nathan Ackerman, a psychiatrist trained in the psychoanalytic tradition, began to treat children in conjunction with their families. His justification for seeing all family members in treatment was that families, like individuals, possess hidden conflicts that prevent them from engaging in healthy psychological functioning. Therefore, the role of the family therapist was to uncover these family conflicts, thus creating the possibility that the conflicts could be addressed in more adaptive ways. Once these family conflicts were properly handled, the causes of the child’s psychological problems were removed. Ackerman’s approach marked the beginning of the use of family therapy for the treatment of children’s problems.




Parent Training

Another historical movement within child psychotherapy is behavioral parent training (BPT). BPT evolved from the recognition that parents are important in shaping their children’s behavior and that they can be trained to eliminate many of their children’s problems. Beginning in the late 1960s, researchers such as Gerald Patterson and Rex Forehand began to develop programs designed to target parents as the principal people responsible for change in their children’s maladaptive behavior. In this system of psychotherapy, parents were taught ways to assess and to intervene to correct their children’s misbehavior. The role of the child was de-emphasized to the point that the child might not even be seen by the therapist during the treatment process.




Cognitive and Cognitive Behavioral Therapies

In the 1970s, some psychologists, including Donald Meichenbaum, began to apply the principles of behavior therapy to not only overt but also covert behaviors (that is, thoughts). Thus, the cognitive tradition was begun. Cognitive therapies are based on the mediational model, a model based on the belief that cognitive activity affects behavior. The goal of cognitive therapy is to institute behavioral changes via modifications in thoughts, especially maladaptive ones. Many child therapies actually use both cognitive and behavioral approaches in combination: cognitive behavior therapy. The cognitive behavior approach can be conceptualized as a two-pronged approach addressing both thoughts and behaviors while emphasizing their reciprocal relationship (thought affects behavior and behavior affects thought).





Treatment Formats

It is estimated that more than two hundred different types of child psychotherapy exist; however, these specific types of therapy can be roughly divided into three larger categories of treatment based on the primary focus of their interventions. These three categories are children only, parents only, or children and parents combined.



Child-Only Format

Individual child psychotherapy, the first category of psychotherapy with children, focuses on the child alone because of the belief that the greatest amount of improvement can result when the child is given primary attention in treatment. An example of individual child treatment is psychodynamic play therapy. Originating from the work of Anna Freud, psychodynamic play therapy has as its basic goal providing the child with insight into the internal conflicts that have caused his or her psychological disorder. Once the child has gained sufficient insight, he or she is guided in handling these conflicts in more adaptive ways. Play therapy can be divided into three basic phases: initial, interpretative, and working-through phases.


In the initial phase of play therapy, the major goal is to establish a cooperative relationship between the child and the therapist. The attainment of this goal may require considerable time for several potential reasons. These reasons include a child’s unwillingness to participate in therapy, lack of understanding regarding the therapy process, and lack of a previous trusting relationship with an adult. The participation in play activities provides an opportunity for the therapist to interact with the child in a relaxed and interesting manner. The specific kinds of play utilized differ from therapist to therapist but may include competitive games (such as checkers), imaginative games involving different figures (hand puppets, for example), or cooperative games (playing catch).


Once a sufficient level of cooperation is established, the therapist can begin to make interpretations to the child regarding the play. These interpretations consist of the therapist identifying themes in the content or style of a child’s play that may relate to a psychological problem. For example, in playing with hand puppets, a child referred because of aggressive behavior may regularly enact stories in which a larger puppet “beats up” a smaller puppet. The child’s therapist may interpret this story as meaning that the child is aggressive toward others because he or she feels inadequate.


Once the child gains insight into the internal conflict that has caused his or her problematic behavior, the child is guided by the therapist to develop a more adaptive way of handling this conflict. This final process of therapy is called working through. The working-through phase may be the most difficult part of treatment, because it involves the child abandoning a repetitive and maladaptive manner of handling a conflict in favor of a new approach. In comparison to most other psychotherapies, this treatment process is lengthy, ranging from months to years.




Parent-Only Format

The second category of child psychotherapy, parent training, focuses intervention on the parents, because they are viewed as potentially the most effective persons available to alleviate the child’s problems. This assumption is based on several factors, including the great amount of time parents spend with their children, the parents’ control over the child’s access to desired reinforcers, and the parents’ understanding of the child’s behavior because of their past relationship with the child. Behavioral parent training (BPT) is the most common type of parent training program. In BPT, parents are taught ways to modify their children’s environment to improve behavior.


The initial phase of this treatment process involves instructing parents in the basics of learning theory. They are taught that all behavior, adaptive or maladaptive, is maintained because it is reinforced. The application of learning theory to the correction of children’s misbehavior involves three principles. First, positive reinforcement should be withdrawn from children’s maladaptive behavior. For example, a father who meets the demands of his screaming preschooler who throws a temper tantrum in the checkout line of the grocery store because she wants a piece of candy is unwittingly reinforcing the child’s screaming behavior. Second, appropriate behavior that is incompatible with the maladaptive behavior should be positively reinforced. In the case of the screaming preschooler, this would involve rewarding her for acting correctly. Third, aversive consequences should be applied when the problem behavior recurs. That is, when the child engages in the misbehavior, he or she should consistently experience negative costs. For example, the preschooler who has a temper tantrum in the checkout line should not be allowed money to purchase gum, which she had previously selected as a potential reward for good store behavior, as the cost for her tantrum. To produce the greatest effect, positive reinforcement and negative consequences should be administered as close as possible to the occurrence of the appropriate or inappropriate behavior.




Family Format

The final category of child psychotherapy, family therapy, focuses intervention on both the child and the child’s family. Family therapy rests on the assumption that the child’s psychological problems were created and are maintained by interactions among different family members. In this model, attention is shifted away from the individual child’s problems toward the functioning of the entire family. For example, in structural family therapy, a widely practiced type of family therapy, the boundaries between different family members are closely examined. Family boundaries represent the degree of separation between different family members or subsets of members (for example, the parent-versus-child subset). According to Salvador Minuchin, the originator of structural family therapy, families in which there is little separation between parents and children may cause certain children to misbehave as a way to gain increased emotional distance from their parents. On the other hand, families characterized by too much separation between parents and children may cause certain children to become depressed because of the lack of a confiding relationship with a parental figure. Regardless of the child’s specific disorder, all family members, not the child or parents alone, are the focus of treatment.





Efficacy of Psychotherapy

The two large questions that can be asked regarding psychotherapy for children are whether it is effective and whether one type of treatment is more effective than others. The answer to the first question is very clear: psychotherapy is effective in treating the majority of children’s psychological disorders. Two major studies in the 1980s reviewed the existing research examining the effects of child psychotherapy. The first of these studies was conducted by Rita Casey and Jeffrey Berman in 1985, and the second was conducted by John Weisz, Bahr Weiss, Mark Alicke, and M. L. Klotz in 1987. Both these studies found that children who received psychotherapy were better off than approximately 75 percent of the children who did not receive psychotherapy. Interestingly, Weisz and colleagues found that younger children (ages four to twelve) appeared to obtain more benefit from psychotherapy than older children (ages thirteen to eighteen). In addition, Casey and Berman found that girls tend to receive more benefit from psychotherapy than do boys.


As one might expect, some controversy exists in attempting to answer the second question, regarding which treatment is the most effective. Casey and Berman concluded that all treatments were equally effective; however, Weisz and colleagues found that behavioral treatments were more effective than nonbehavioral treatments. Disagreement regarding which type of psychotherapy is most effective should not be allowed to obscure the general conclusion that psychotherapy for children is clearly beneficial. Many investigators would suggest that the characteristics shared by all types of child psychotherapy are responsible for the relatively equivalent improvement produced by different treatments. For example, one of these common characteristics may be the therapist’s and child’s expectations that therapy will result in a reduction in the child’s psychological problems. In spite of the treatments’ apparent differences in rationale and method, it may be that this component, as well as other common elements, accounts for much of the similarity in treatment outcomes.


The number of psychotherapeutic approaches available to treat children’s psychological disorders has exploded since their introduction in the 1920s. Recent research has clearly demonstrated the effectiveness of psychotherapy for children. Controversy still remains, however, regarding which treatment approach is the most effective; continued research is needed to address this issue. Of greater urgency is the need to provide psychotherapy to the approximately five to ten million children with psychological disorders who are not being served. Perhaps even more cost effective, in terms of both alleviating human suffering and reducing costs, would be the development of programs to prevent children’s psychological disorders.




Bibliography


American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Washington, DC: APA, 2013. Print.



American Psychiatric Association. DSM-5 and Diagnoses for Children. Washington, DC: APA, 2013. Digital file.



Ammerman, R. T., M. Hersen, and C. Last, eds. Handbook of Prescriptive Treatments for Children and Adolescents. Boston: Allyn, 1999. Print.



Axline, Virginia Mae. Dibs: In Search of Self. New York: Ballantine, 1990. Print.



Brems, C. A Comprehensive Guide to Child Psychotherapy. 3d ed. Long Grove: Waveland, 2008. Print.



Briesmeister, J. M., and C. E. Schaefer, eds. Handbook of Parent Training: Parents as Cotherapists for Children’s Behavior Problems. Hoboken: Wiley, 2007. Print.



Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "CDC Features: Children's Mental Health—New Report." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC, 21 May 2013. Web. 26 June 2014.



Gordon, Thomas. Parent Effectiveness Training: The Proven Program for Raising Responsible Children. Rev. ed. New York: Three Rivers, 2000. Print.



Kendall, Philip C., ed. Child and Adolescent Therapy. 3d ed. New York: Guilford, 2006. Print.



Minuchin, Salvador. Families and Family Therapy. London: Routledge, 1993. Print.



Monte, Christopher. “Anna Freud: The Psychoanalytic Heritage and Developments in Ego Psychology.” In Beneath the Mask: An Introduction to Theories of Personality. 7th ed. Hoboken: Wiley, 2003. Print.



National Institute of Mental Health. "Use of Mental Health Services and Treatment among Children." National Institute of Mental Health. NIMH, n.d. Web. 26 June 2014.



Nemiroff, Marc A., and Jane Annunziata. A Child’s First Book About Play Therapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1990. Print.



Perou, Ruth, et al. "Mental Health Surveillance among Children—United States, 2005–2011: Supplements." Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. CDC, 17 May 2013. Web. 26 June 2014.



Reinecke, M. A., F. M. Dattilio, and A. Freeman, eds. Cognitive Therapy with Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford, 2007. Print.

How does Mullet Fingers escape with Dana in Hoot?

In the Epilogue of Hoot, Mullet Fingers's mother, Lonna, first wants her son to live with the family again, mainly because she hopes to remain in the limelight because of his fame. Mullet Fingers only stays put for two days before attempting to run away. Angered by his attempt, Lonna falsely accuses him of stealing a toe ring from her, and he is sent to juvenile detention. He happens to meet Dana Matherson there. Knowing all about Dana through Roy, Mullet Fingers chooses him as an escape partner. The two boys hide in the laundry basket as it leaves the detention center, but the authorities soon discover they are missing, and police pull the laundry truck over. Dana and Mullet Fingers spring out the back door of the truck and make a run for it. Dana is no runner, as readers have seen earlier in the book, and he still hasn't fully recovered from the injuries from the rat traps clamping down on his toes. This makes him "the perfect decoy." The officers easily overtake, tackle, and bind Dana with handcuffs while Mullet Fingers whisks away into the woods. 

What is the story "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" talking about?

"Rikki-Tikki-Tavi," a children's story published by Rudyard Kipling in his second volume of The Jungle Book, is a fantasy story that features talking animals. It takes place in a garden and bungalow in India. The human characters are British people living in India, as was Kipling. In the story, the little boy, Teddy, finds a mongoose, which is an animal that is somewhat like a cat and somewhat like a weasel. The mongoose is young and has been washed away from him home in a heavy rain. Thinking it is dead, Teddy plans to bury the animal, but the mother dries it off and revives it. The rest of the story relates the antics of the mongoose as he follows his instincts, first of curiosity, and second of killing snakes. The mongoose is called "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" because that is similar to the sound a mongoose makes. As the story progresses, Rikki learns of the threat the two cobras pose to the family and the animals. He kills a smaller snake, and then he teams up with the man to kill Nag, the male cobra. Next he destroys the eggs of the cobras that are about to hatch, and then he has a final battle with Nagaina, the female cobra. The animals and the humans praise Rikki for his valor, but for the mongoose, it is all in a day's work. 

How is the theme of humanity shown though Shakespeare's play Othello?

All of Shakespeare's plays deal with core human emotions and the effect they have when they are misunderstood, manipulated and used for personal gain. That fact has not changed through the centuries, and nor has the human need for community and acceptance, the basic tenets of humanity. There are plenty of people who recognize that need and take advantage, and Othello is particularly vulnerable as he feels like an outsider. He constantly tries to prove himself or show his worth. While having to justify his marriage to Desdemona, having been accused of using "witchcraft" on her, he tells the Duke, in Act I, scene iii that Brabantio (Desdemona's father) "loved me, oft invited me, / Still questioned me the story of my life" (128) and yet now Brabantio is the one who has been manipulated by Iago into believing that Othello has "abused, stolen from me, and corrupted, by spells and medicines..." (60) his daughter. Human nature is such that people often act first and think later, with dire consequences.


Othello knows that Desdemona "loved me for the dangers ..." (167), and as he says in Act III, scene iii, "she had eyes and chose me" (193). However, he still worries that, because he is "black / And has (have) not those soft parts of conversation..." (267) that he may in some way be responsible if she has done what Iago is suggesting and been unfaithful to him with Cassio. Iago abuses Othello's humanity, his trust, his kindness and his goodwill, but still Othello does not recognize it, thinking "honest Iago" is trying to protect him. Othello does believe in Desdemona, but he unwittingly gives Iago another opportunity to intensify any doubts he may have. When Othello demands "ocular proof," (364), this creates the perfect opportunity for the unscrupulous Iago.


As soon as Othello has his proof, the fact that he believes that the only way to save Desdemona, and rescue his own self-worth and honor, is to kill her reveals an age-old human failing as control and power become the driving force behind Othello's actions. For Othello to believe that there can be such a thing as an "honorable murderer" (V.ii.297), and that his contribution to the Venetian state should mitigate the opinion of others, seals the pure tragedy of Othello and supports the theme of humanity.

What is a summary of Arthur Conan Doyle's "Night Voices"?

Night Voices is one creepy poem. 


The first two stanzas seem to be a conversation between a young child and his (the gender isn't clear, but let's assume it is a young boy for the sake of expediency) father near bedtime. The child asks his father, "who is it who whispers in the wood?"


The father, as any parent does, is quick to assure his child. He says, "it is the breeze/As it sighs among the trees." 


But the child is unsure. He is convinced that "there's some one who whispers in the wood." 


The second stanza is the same as the first, replacing whispering in the wood with murmuring in the night.


The third stanza is where things start to change. We (the readers) start to become aware that something is not right. The child asks the father to "let us go,/For the light is burning low." Let us go from where? Why would a child be pleading with his father to let him go? And who is "us"?


In the fourth and final stanza, our whole perception of this poem is drastically changed. For your convenience, here is the whole fourth stanza:



"Father, father, tell me what you're waiting for,
Tell me why your eyes are on the door.
It is dark and it is late,
But you sit so still and straight,
Ever staring, ever smiling, at the door."



Now, the father's actions have replaced the noises in the night as the creepy subject of the poem. The father is not a comforting figure, but stares, "ever smiling, at the door." He is terrifying--the active figure in the horror story. His answers from earlier in the story are under question, and we fear for the future of the children. 

How did the Marshall Plan of 1946 impact the relationship between Western Europe and the United States?

The European Recovery Program, commonly known as the Marshall Plan, strengthened the relationship between the United States and Western Europe. The Soviet Union wanted to spread communism throughout the world. They were successful in establishing communist governments in Eastern Europe. They now set their eyes on doing the same in Western Europe. The communists tried to take over countries that had weak or struggling economies, and the Marshall Plan was designed to strengthen the economies of Western European countries to prevent them from becoming communist countries.


The United States offered economic aid to countries that were fighting the spread of communism. Western European countries, such as Greece and Turkey, accepted our aid. These countries didn’t become communist. Combined with other actions, such as the Berlin Airlift and the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the United States and the countries of Western Europe became strong partners that worked cooperatively to prevent the spread of communism to Western Europe after World War II ended.

Sunday, May 26, 2013

How did the National Recovery Administration attempt to improve the economy in the United States?

The National Recovery Administration (NRA), was created by an executive order by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in response to the conditions during the Great Depression. The NRA was designed to combat two aspects of the economy seen as significant factors hindering progress - poor working conditions and wages and plummeting prices. The way that these were dealt with was by forming codes to be adopted by all industries. These included the allowance of unions as well as limiting the work week and paying employees a reasonable wage. Also, prices were fixed by the government in the hopes that it would stabilize the economy and prevent prices from dropping further. 


The NRA was not viewed as a success. The first reason was that all of the codes forced onto businesses by the NRA were difficult and cumbersome for the business owners to follow and implement. Ultimately, it was a business owner who took the NRA to the Supreme Court where it was ruled unconstitutional. The second reason that it failed was that the pricing practices of the government took hold way before the union and workforce wage programs took effect. This meant that workers were not seeing increased wages while the cost of goods was rising. This lead to a worsening of the situation instead of leading to more stability. 


The National Recovery Administration was an intervention that had some solid ideas about how to help the nation recover from the Great Depression, but it did not deliver. While the NRA is regarded as a failure, some of its innovations remain to this day. Unions are still in place and sanctioned by the government, forty hour workweeks are still the norm and there are now child labor laws as a result of the legislation.

Saturday, May 25, 2013

How is the educational system in the novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, compared with today's public and charter schools?

Harper Lee portrays the educational system in the novel To Kill a Mockingbird as rigid and meaningless. Scout's first-grade teacher, Miss Caroline, rebukes her for being able to read and write at such a young age. Instead of facilitating Scout's abilities, Miss Caroline attempts to stifle Scout's development by telling her not to read with her father. Miss Caroline also does not consider the interests of her students and continues to read stories which bore them. Scout even decides to write Dill a letter in the middle of an uninteresting flash card activity. Later on in the novel, Scout's third-grade teacher, Miss Gates, is portrayed as a hypocrite for commenting that persecution and prejudice does not exist in America. Harper Lee's cynical view of the educational system in the novel correlates with the negative aspects of public schools nationwide.


In today's society, standardized testing is the foremost concern of each public school. Ethics and morals are no longer taught in schools, and the predominant focus is directed towards mathematics, science, and English. Many students are uninterested in their classes, and the public school system is beginning to neglect the arts and humanities nationwide. However, charter schools do offer students a more flexible educational experience geared towards their specific interests. Charter schools are still considered public schools, but operate in a different manner. Many charter schools offer classes that focus on science, technology, or the arts. Students who are interested in pursuing careers that charters schools specialize in have the option to transfer from their home schools. Harper Lee would probably favor charter schools over public schools, but her underlying views of the educational system as a whole would remain negative.

Friday, May 24, 2013

What happens to Scout throughout Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird?

As the plot of Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird progresses, Scout significantly matures. At the beginning of the story, she is a young tomboy prone to act out in violence and who has her fair share of prejudices. By the end of the story, she is calmer, has learned to accept and appreciate her role as a lady, and has even let go of many of her prejudices. Many chapters toward the end of the novel reveal many details about her growth and development. Two of the best moments that mark her growth and development occur in the final chapter.

Scout and Jem have just been rescued by Arthur "Boo" Radley, who then asks Scout to walk him home. Scout's thoughts and response to his request help mark her maturity. She thinks to herself, "I would lead him through our house, but I would never lead him home" (Chapter 31). She then asks him to bend his arm so she can slip her own hand through his, as a lady would do when being escorted by a gentleman. Scout does this to protect him from any prying eyes, such as those of Miss Stephanie Crawford's, and to protect him from any unfair judgements someone like Miss Crawford might make. Scout's choice to protect Arthur shows us how much compassion and understanding she has developed as the novel has progressed. She now sees Arthur for the person he truly is, a kind, giving, and caring person, and she refuses to let anyone continue to judge him as being otherwise.

Another moment that marks Scout's growth and development is when, after having escorted Arthur home, she stands on his front porch in front of his window and views the neighborhood as he would see it. As she does so, she reflects on all the experiences she and Jem have had over the course of the last three years that Arthur would have witnessed from his window. As she does so, she thinks of Jem and herself as "his children," which shows she has come to understand how much Arthur cares for her and Jem. Most importantly, as she stands on Arthur's porch, she reflects on a lesson Atticus taught her that is a central theme of the novel.



Atticus was right. One time he said you never really know a man until you stand in his shoes and walk around in them. Just standing on the Radley porch was enough (Chapter 31).



By standing on Arthur's porch and seeing the world as he would have seen it, Scout metaphorically stands in Arthur's shoes, meaning she sees the world from his perspective. Her ability to understand his perspective and see Arthur as a kind, caring person, not the scary monster she used to see him as, marks just how much she has matured by letting go of her prejudices as the book has progressed.

How was Curley's character presented in the barn?

In Of Mice and Men, Curley proves his hatred for Lennie in the barn scene. He is presented as a man with vengeance, not necessarily for his wife, but he is carrying a grudge that he has been holding against Lennie for crushing his hand.


When Candy calls the men into the barn to show them that Curley's wife is dead, Curley immediately suspects Lennie as his wife's murderer. He immediately forms a lynch mob to track Lennie down.



Curley at once decides that Lennie is responsible. Showing more concern for getting Lennie than for his dead wife, Curley and Carlson go for their guns. 



Curley never took the time to say farewell to his wife before leaving the barn. He is more concerned with finding Lennie. Curley does not show any sentiment to his wife who is lying lifeless in the hay. He is still harboring anger since Lennie humiliated him by crushing his hand:



...Curley, intent on revenge, more for his shattered hand than for his dead wife, wants Lennie to suffer. “I’m gonna shoot the guts outa that big bastard myself, even if I only got one hand. I’m gonna get ‘im.” 



Curley is a man filled with anger and revenge. He is not about justice at all. He just wants to make Lennie suffer for the humiliation he has had to endure. 

Thursday, May 23, 2013

Explain what "one thing that doesn't abide by majority rule is a person's conscience" means in To Kill a Mockingbird.

Atticus means that he believes that he should help Tom Robinson and he will not let anyone tell him differently.


Atticus’s children are tired of people insulting him for defending Tom Robinson.  Scout got in fights with her classmate and cousin, and Jem destroyed Mrs. Dubose’s flowers for it.  They think that perhaps Atticus is the one in the wrong.  He explains to them why he must take it.



This case, Tom Robinson’s case, is something that goes to the essence of a man’s conscience—Scout, I couldn’t go to church and worship God if I didn’t try to help that man.”


“Atticus, you must be wrong…”


“How’s that?”


“Well, most folks seem to think they’re right and you’re wrong…” (Ch. 11)



Atticus tells his children that he will follow his own conscience because he believes that he is doing the right thing in defending Tom Robinson.  Atticus was appointed by Judge Taylor, but he also believes in what he is doing.  Tom Robinson deserves a good defense, black or white.


In his closing arguments during the trial, Atticus explains that the justice system is supposed to be colorblind.  The rest of society might be racist, but the courtroom is supposed to exist in a vacuum of facts.  In practice, this does not always work out, but Atticus reminds the jury of it.



“But there is one way in this country in which all men are created equal—there is one human institution that makes a pauper the equal of a Rockefeller, the stupid man the equal of an Einstein, and the ignorant man the equal of any college president. That institution, gentlemen, is a court….” (Ch. 20)



The jury does convict Tom Robinson after all of that, but Atticus wins a victory in that the jury actually deliberates.  This means that he got through the thick layer of racism to make them think about what they were doing and question it.  The jury convicted Tom Robinson that time, but maybe next time they wouldn’t.  Each man should be ruled by his own conscience, not social norms.

Tuesday, May 21, 2013

How is Jem changing, and why do these changes bother Scout?

Simply put--Jem is growing up. Calpurnia tries to explain it to Scout in chapter 12 as follows:



"Baby. . . I just can't help it if Mister Jem's growin' up. He's gonna want to be off to himself a lot now, doin' whatever boys do, so you just come right on in the kitchen when you feel lonesome" (115).



By chapter 14 the most significant changes start to show in Jem. He starts to act more like an adult to Scout rather than treating her like an equal or a playmate. For example, he takes Scout aside and tells her that if she doesn't stop aggravating Aunt Alexandra, he will spank her. Scout gets into a physical fight with him about this, and since he fights back, she feels he hasn't changed enough for them not to still be equals. But the change in Jem certainly strains his relationship with Scout.


Following this fight, Scout discovers Dill hiding under her bed. He had run away from home and she wasn't going to tell Atticus about him if it weren't for Jem. When Jem finds Dill, he says, "You oughta let your mother know where you are" (141). Then he goes to get Atticus to tell him that Dill is in Scout's room and she says the following:



"Dill's eyes flickered at Jem, and Jem looked at the floor. Then he rose and broke the remaining code of our childhood. He went out of the room and down the hall. 'Atticus,' his voice was distant. 'can you come here a minute, sir?'" (141).



Jem breaks the code of no snitching on other kids. He acts like an adult by telling on Dill and it almost makes Dill run again. If it weren't for Atticus's calm and kind response, he may have run right then. Fortunately, Jem and Scout figure a way to stay brother and sister as Jem goes through puberty and matures--just like all siblings do.

I cannot decide my destination regarding my career; what should I do? I have a master's degree of science with physics first class and I'm...

This is advice, and as such is only my personal solution. Your education has supplied you with several skills besides a thorough knowledge of the laws of physics. You now know how to use the scientific method to determine logical patterns, and you can concentrate on a task long enough to bring it to a successful completion. I recommend you separate your quest into two parts: a career with a substantial source of income, and your “life’s work.” By "life's work," I mean to ask, “what project would you like to devote your precious life to?” In your education, you must have been exposed to some sort of fascinating area of inquiry – environment, space travel, prosthesis, commercial invention, modes of travel, etc. – some area that drew you in not because of its occupational potential, but because of some non-expressible fascination to you personally. Make that general or specific area your “life’s work.” Take any “job” that will pay the rent, but keep searching for opportunities to do your “life’s work.” Remember that the goal is to be happy, not to be rich.

Monday, May 20, 2013

Why is the Declaration of Independence important to us now and during the revolutionary war?

The United States Declaration of Independence is one of the most important founding documents of the American system of government. While the Declaration justified colonial America's quest for independence from Great Britain, it also proposed a formula for self government based on the fundamental (i.e., natural) rights of humankind.  The most profound statement of the Declaration that carries as much weight today as it did in 1776 is the idea that "all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." Every person, regardless of any perceived difference from another person, has the same basic rights. No one, not even the government, has the right to take away the rights all people were born with -- the right to life, the right to be free (with certain limitations for illegal activity), and the right to have the necessities of life that bring happiness. 


The second most important statement is that "Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,—That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it." Democratically elected governments can become oppressive just as authoritarian governments like that of George III tended to be. Therefore, the founders saw fit to insist on the right to "alter" or change the existing government to insure that those in power protected the rights of the governed. Today, we don't change our government via revolutionary wars, we do so at the polls when we vote to put a new president, congressional members, or even local leaders in office. The Declaration not only says it is the right of the people to do this, it says "it is their right, it is their DUTY, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security."


The ideas in the United States Declaration of independence are as important today as they were in 1776 even though we live in totally different country from the one that emerged following the American war for independence. Many colonial Americans felt George III's new laws governing the colonies were oppressive.  In today's America we find, at any given time, that many feel the same way about the leaders of this country, that they are not looking out for the rights of the people, i.e., the governed. The Declaration of Independence admonished the governed to be prudent, i.e., not hasty but careful or wise, when overthrowing an existing government by saying, “Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes.” Only once in almost 240 years of existence, between 1861-1865, have the people of the U.S. determined that it was justifiable to go war to protect the natural rights of persons living in this country. Though passionate and often heated, most  disagreement with the way government carries out its purpose has been "light and transient" enough to be altered through elections and the understanding that elected officials serve with the consent of the people. 

How does the choice of details set the tone of the sermon?

Edwards is remembered for his choice of details, particularly in this classic sermon. His goal was not to tell people about his beliefs; he ...