In what ways did Native Americans resist the Indian Removal Act?

In the early 19th century, many settlers in North America thought the Native Americans, especially the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole, were standing in the way of western expansion. When the Supreme Court held, in Johnson v. M’Intosh (1823), that indians could occupy, but not own, land within the United States, and by aboriginal right, the Indians could only transfer land to the U.S. government, the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek nations tried to protect what land they had left by restricting sales to the United States Government. Not withstanding those actions, removal was inescapable due to the westward onslaught of white settlement.

Andrew Jackson was instrumental in Indian removal early as early as 1814 when he defeated the Creek nation, taking about 22 million acres of their land in Georgia and Alabama. Jackson continued his quest for Indian removal until 1824 when he ran for President of the United States. He lost to John Q. Adams, but won the 1828 Election.  Almost immediately after taking office President Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act of 1830. The new law gave

the president power to negotiate removal treaties with Indian tribes living east of the Mississippi…Indians were to give up their lands east of the Mississippi in exchange for lands to the west. Those wishing to remain in the east would become citizens of their home state.  “Indian Removal,” PBS.org

Even though the president had the power to “remove” Indigenous tribes, removal was supposed to be voluntary, but when “southeastern nations resisted, Jackson forced them to leave.” Previous peaceful attempts at resistance failed, so Native Americans used new methods after 1830. The Choctaw were the first to accept a treaty of removal, however, many of the tribal members resisted removal. They stayed behind under the provisions of the treaty but were mistreated by white settlers. Most finally gave up their land and moved west. 

The Cherokee nation had written and adopted a Constitution in 1827, and later sued the State of Georgia for restricting their freedoms on tribal lands. In 1830, Chief Justice John Marshall ruled in favor of the State of Georgia, but when the Cherokee returned to the Supreme Court in 1831, the Court reversed the earlier decision, ruling that the “Indian tribes were sovereign and immune from Georgia laws.” Although the ruling favored the Native American tribes, Alabama and Andrew Jackson chose to ignore the Court and pushed for removal. By trickery in 1833, a group who claimed to be Cherokee leaders (they were not the recognized leaders of the Cherokee nation) signed a removal treaty. Cherokee Chief John Ross and 15,000 others signed a petition in protest, but the Supreme Court refused the petition, ratified the treaty, and gave the nation two years to move west or face forced migration. The result, in 1838, was the infamous “Trail of Tears” that led to the loss of 4,000 Cherokee lives. 

In 1833, some members of the Seminole nation accepted a treaty of removal. The majority of the tribe’s members considered the treaty illegitimate and resisted removal. The resistance resulted in the Second Seminole War (1835-1842) which cost thousands of Seminole lives. Most of the Seminole moved west after that war, but a few stayed behind. The remaining tribal members were forced to defend themselves again in the Third Seminole War (1855-58), but they too moved west after the United States government paid them to do so. 

The Creeks refused to leave Alabama, but in an 1832 treaty, they gave up a large portion of their land with a guarantee of “protected ownership of the remaining portion.” Unfortunately, the protection didn’t materialize, and by 1832, the Creeks were left destitute by speculators who cheated them out of their land. The destitute Creeks turned violent against the white settlers. Their theft of livestock and crops, arson, and murder led to a forced removal in 1837 as a military necessity. No treaty of removal was ever signed.

Of the “Five Nations,” only the Chickasaw did not resist. They had signed a treaty of removal in 1832 with a guarantee of U.S. government protection until they could emigrate. Again, the guaranteed protection did not materialize due to the onslaught of white settlers. Under duress, the Chickasaw were forced to pay the Choctaw to occupy a portion of the Choctaw's western allotment. The Chickasaw emigration commenced in 1837. 

In a nutshell: the Choctaw were the first to sign a treaty of removal but some tribal members resisted by staying behind under treaty provisions; the Cherokee used legal means to resist removal; the Seminole who considered the treaty of removal illegitimate fought two wars of resistance; the Creek refused to leave Alabama but compromised with the white settlers until they were left destitute and turned to violence against the settlers; and the Chickasaw did not resist.

What is evolutionary biology?

An Evolutionary Context

Life is self-perpetuating, with each generation connected to previous ones by the thread of DNA passed from ancestors to descendants. Life on Earth thus has a single history much like the genealogy of an extended family, the shape and characteristics of which have been determined by internal and external forces. The effort to uncover that history and describe the forces that shape it constitutes the field of evolutionary biology.

As an example of the need for this perspective, consider three vertebrates of different species, two aquatic (a whale and a fish) and one terrestrial (a deer). The two aquatic species share a torpedolike shape and oarlike appendages. These two species differ, however, in that one lays eggs and obtains oxygen from the water using gills, while the other produces live young and must breathe air at the surface. The terrestrial species has a different, less streamlined, shape and appendages for walking, but it too breathes air using lungs and produces live young. All three species are the same in having a bony skeleton typical of vertebrates. In order to understand why the various organisms display the features they do, it is necessary to consider what forces or historical constraints influence their genotypes and subsequent phenotypes.

It is logical to hypothesize that a streamlined shape is beneficial to swimming creatures, as is the structure of their appendages. This statement is itself an evolutionary hypothesis; it implies that streamlined individuals will be more successful than less streamlined ones and so will become prevalent in an aquatic environment. It may initially be difficult to reconcile the differences between the two aquatic forms swimming side-by-side with the similarities between one of them and the terrestrial species walking around on dry land. However, if it is understood that the whale is more closely related to the terrestrial deer than it is to the fish, much of the confusion disappears. Using this comparative approach, it is unnecessary, and scientifically unjustified, to construct an elaborate scenario whereby breathing air at the surface is more advantageous to a whale than gills would be; the simpler explanation is that the whale breathes air because it (like the deer) is a mammal, and both species inherited this trait from a common ancestor sometime in the past.

Organisms are thus a mixture of two kinds of traits. Ecological traits are those the particular form of which reflects long-term adaptation to the species’ habitat. Two species living in the same habitat might then be expected to be similar in such features and different from species in other habitats. Evolutionary characteristics, on the other hand, indicate common ancestry rather than common ecology. Here, similarity between two species indicates that they are related to each other through common ancestry, just as familial similarity can be used to identify siblings in a crowd of people. In reality, all traits are somewhere along a continuum between these two extremes, but this distinction highlights the importance of understanding the evolutionary history of organisms and traits. The value of an evolutionary perspective comes from its comparative and historical basis, which allows biologists to place their snapshot-in-time observations within the broader context of the continuous history of life.

Early Evolutionary Thought

Underlying evolutionary theory is Mendelian genetics, which provides a mechanism whereby genes conferring advantageous traits can be passed on to offspring. Both Mendelian genetics and the theory of evolution are, at first glance (and in retrospect), remarkably simple. The theory of evolution, however, is paradoxical in that it leads to extremely complex predictions and thus is often misunderstood, misinterpreted, and misapplied.

It is important to distinguish between the phenomenon of evolution and the various processes or mechanisms that may lead to evolution. The idea that species might be mutable, or subject to change over generations, dates back to at least the mid-eighteenth century, when the French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon, the Swiss naturalist Charles Bonnet, and even the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus
suggested that species (or at least “varieties”) might be modified over time by intrinsic biological or extrinsic environmental factors. Other biologists after that time also promoted the idea that populations and species could evolve. Nevertheless, with the publication of
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection

in 1859, Charles Darwin
became the most prominent of those who proposed that all species had descended from a common ancestor and that there was a single “tree of life.” These claims regarding the history of evolution, however, are distinct from the problem of how, or through what mechanisms, evolution occurs.

In the first decade of the nineteenth century, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
promoted a hypothesis of inheritance of acquired characteristics to explain how species could adapt over time to their environments. His famous giraffe example illustrates the Lamarckian view: Individual giraffes acquire longer necks as a result of reaching for leaves high on trees, then pass that modified characteristic to their offspring. According to Lamarck’s theories, as a result of such adaptation, the species—and, in fact, each individual member of the species—is modified over time. While completely in line with early nineteenth century views of inheritance, this view of the mechanism of evolution has since been shown to be incorrect.

Darwinian Evolution: Natural Selection

In the mid-nineteenth century, Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
independently developed the theory of evolution via natural selection, a theory that is consistent with the principles of inheritance as described by Gregor Mendel. Both Darwin’s and Wallace’s arguments center on four observations of nature and a logical conclusion derived from those observations (presented here in standard genetics terminology, although Darwin and Wallace used different terms).

First, variation exists in the phenotypes of different individuals in a population. Second, some portion of that variation is heritable, or capable of being passed from parents to offspring. Third, more individuals are produced in a population than will survive and reproduce. Fourth, some individuals are, because of their particular phenotypes, better able to survive and reproduce than others. From this, Darwin and Wallace deduced that because certain individuals have inherited variations that confer on them a greater ability to survive and reproduce than others, these better-adapted individuals are more likely to transmit their genetically inherited traits to the next generation. Therefore, the frequency of individuals with the favored inherited traits would increase in the next generation, though each individual’s genetic constitution would remain unchanged throughout its lifetime. This process would continue as long as new genetic variants continued to arise and selection favored some over others. The theory of natural selection provided a workable and independently testable natural mechanism by which evolution of complex and sometimes very different
adaptations could occur within and among species.

Evolutionary Biology after Darwin

Despite their theoretical insight, Darwin and Wallace had an incomplete and partially incorrect understanding of the genetic basis of inheritance. Mendel published his work describing the fundamental principles of inheritance in 1866 (he had reported the results before the Brünn Natural History Society earlier, in February and March of 1865), but Darwin and Wallace were unaware throughout their lives that the correct mechanism of inheritance had been discovered. In fact, Mendel’s work went almost entirely unnoticed by the scientific community for thirty-four years; it was rediscovered, and its significance appreciated, in the first decade of the twentieth century. Over the next three decades of the twentieth century, theoreticians integrated Darwin’s theory of natural selection with the principles of genetics discovered by Mendel and others. Simultaneously, Ernst Mayr,
G. Ledyard Stebbins,
George Gaylord Simpson, and Julian Huxley
demonstrated that the evolution of species and the patterns in the fossil record were consistent with each other and could be readily explained by Darwinian principles. This effort culminated in the 1930s and 1940s in the “modern synthesis,” a fusion of thought that resulted in the development of the field of population genetics, a discipline in which biologists seek to describe and predict, quantitatively, evolutionary changes in populations of sexually reproducing organisms.

Since the modern synthesis (also called the neo-Darwinian synthesis), biologists have concentrated their efforts on applying the theories of population genetics to understand the evolutionary dynamics of particular groups of organisms. More recently, techniques of phylogenetic systematics have been developed to provide a means of reconstructing phylogenetic relationships among species. This effort has emphasized the need for a comparative and evolutionary approach to general biology, which is essential to correct interpretation of biological classification.

In the 1960s, Motoo Kimura proposed the neutral theory of evolution, which challenged the “selectionist” view that patterns of genetic and phenotypic variation in most traits are determined by natural selection. The “neutralist” view maintains that much genetic variation, especially that seen in the numerous alleles of enzyme-coding genes, has little effect on fitness and therefore must be controlled by mechanisms other than selection. Advances in molecular biology, particularly those from genomics projects, have allowed testing of the selectionist and neutralist views and have provided evidence that natural selection has a powerful effect on certain variations in DNA, whereas other variations in DNA are subject to neutral evolution. An ongoing effort for a unified model of evolution is integration of evolutionary theory with the understanding of the processes of development (dubbed “evo-devo”), a field that also has benefited greatly from genome projects.

Evolutionary Mechanisms

Natural selection as described by Darwin and Wallace leads to the evolution of adaptations. However, many traits (perhaps the majority) are not adaptations; that is, differences in the particular form of those traits from one member of the species to the next do not lead to differences in fitness among those individuals. Such traits are mostly uninfluenced by natural selection, yet they can and do evolve. Thus, there must be mechanisms beyond natural selection that lead to changes in the genetic structure of biological systems over time.

Evolutionary mechanisms are usually envisioned as acting on individual organisms within a population. For example, natural selection may eliminate some individuals while others survive and produce a large number of offspring genetically similar to themselves. As a result, evolution occurs within those populations. A key tenet of Darwinian evolution (which distinguishes it from Lamarckian evolution) is that populations evolve, but the individual organisms that constitute that population do not, in the sense that their genetic constitution remains essentially constant even though their environments may change. Although evolution of populations is certainly the most familiar scenario, this is not the only level at which evolution occurs.

Richard Dawkins
energized the scientific discussion of evolution with his book The Selfish Gene, first published in 1976. Dawkins argued that natural selection could operate on any type of “replicator,” or unit of biological organization that displayed a faithful but imperfect mechanism of copying itself and that had differing rates of survival and reproduction among the variant copies. Under this definition, it is possible to view individual genes or strands of DNA as focal points for evolutionary mechanisms such as selection. Dawkins used this framework to consider how the existence of DNA selected to maximize its chances of replication (or “selfish DNA”)
would influence the evolution of social behavior, communication, and even multicellularity.

Recognizing that biological systems are arranged in a hierarchical fashion from genes to genomes (or cells) to individuals through populations, species, and communities, Elisabeth Vrba and Niles Eldredge in 1984 proposed that evolutionary changes could occur in any collection of entities (such as populations) as a result of mechanisms acting on the entities (individuals) that make up that collection. Because each level in the biological hierarchy (at least above that of genes) has as its building blocks the elements of the preceding one, evolution may occur within any of them. Vrba and Eldredge further argued that evolution could be viewed as resulting from two general kinds of mechanisms: those that introduce genetic variation and those that sort whatever variation is available. At each level, there are processes that introduce and sort variation, though they may have different names depending on the level being discussed.

Natural selection is a sorting process. Other mechanisms that sort genetic variation include sexual selection, whereby certain variants are favored based on their ability to enhance reproductive success (though not necessarily survival), and genetic drift, which is especially important in small populations. Although these forces are potentially strong engines for driving changes in genetic structure, their action—and therefore the direction and magnitude of evolutionary changes that they can cause—is constrained by the types of variation available and the extent to which that variation is genetically controlled.

Processes such as mutation, recombination, development, migration, and hybridization introduce variation at one or more levels in the biological hierarchy. Of these, mutation is ultimately the most important, as changes in DNA sequences constitute the raw material for evolution at all levels. Without mutation, there would be no variation and thus no evolution. Nevertheless, mutation alone is a relatively weak evolutionary force, only really significant in driving evolutionary changes when coupled with processes of selection or genetic drift that can quickly change allele frequencies. Recombination, development, migration, and hybridization introduce new patterns of genetic variation (initially derived from the mutation of individual genes) at the genome, multicellular-organism, population, and species levels, respectively.

The Reality of Evolution

It is impossible to absolutely prove that descent with modification from a common ancestor is responsible for the diversity of life on earth. In fact, this dilemma of absolute proof exists for all scientific theories; as a result, science proceeds by constructing and testing potential explanations, gradually accepting those best supported by the accumulation of observation and evidence, and their logical interpretations, until theories are either clearly refuted or replaced by modified theories more consistent with the data.

Darwin’s concept of a single tree of life is supported by vast amounts of scientific evidence. In fact, the theory of evolution is among the most thoroughly tested and best-supported theories in all of science. The view that evolution has and continues to occur is not debated by biologists; there is simply too much evidence to support its existence across every biological discipline.

On a small scale, it is possible to demonstrate evolutionary changes experimentally or through direct observation. Spontaneous mutations that introduce genetic variation are well documented; the origination and spread of drug-resistant forms of viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens is clear evidence of this potential. Agricultural breeding programs and other types of artificial selection demonstrate that the genetic structure of lineages containing heritable variation can be changed over time through agents of selection. For example, work by John Doebley begun in the late 1980s suggested that the evolution of corn from a wild ancestor resembling modern teosinte may have involved changes in as few as five major genes and that this transition likely occurred as a result of domestication processes established in Mexico between seven thousand and ten thousand years ago. The effects of natural selection can likewise be observed in operation: Peter Grant and his colleagues discovered that during drought periods, when seed is limited, deep-billed individuals of the Galápagos Island finch Geospiza fortis increase in proportion to the general population of the species, as only the deep-billed birds can crack the large seeds remaining after the supply of smaller seeds is exhausted. These and similar examples demonstrate that the evolutionary mechanisms put forward by Darwin and others do occur and lead to microevolution, or evolutionary change within single species.

Attempts to account for larger-scale macroevolutionary patterns, such as speciation
and the origin of major groups of organisms, rely to some extent on direct observation but for the most part are based on indirect tests using morphological and genetic comparisons among different species, observed geographic distributions of species, and the fossil record. Such comparative studies rely on the concept of homology, the presence of corresponding and similarly constructed features among species, as well as similar DNA sequences and chromosomal rearrangements, which are a consequence of inheritance from common ancestry.

At the most basic level, organization of the genetic code is remarkably similar across species; only minor variations exist among organisms as diverse as archaea (bacteria found in extreme environments such as hot springs, salt lakes, and habitats lacking in oxygen), bacteria, and eukaryotes (organisms whose cells contain a true nucleus, including plants, animals, fungi, and their unicellular counterparts). This genetic homology extends as well to the presence of shared and similarly functioning gene sequences across biological taxa, such as homeotic genes, common within major groups of eukaryotes. The near-universal nature of the genetic code can be best explained if it arose once during the early evolution of the first forms of life and has been transmitted through inheritance and preserved through natural selection to the present in all organisms.

Morphological homologies are also widespread; the limbs of mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles, for example, are all built out of the same fundamental arrangement of bones. The particular shapes, and even number, of these bones can vary among groups, often as adaptations to the widely varying functions of these bones. For example, if the bones in the pectoral fins of dolphins are compared to the bones in the human arm and hand, the same arrangement of bones is immediately evident but the bones differ in their relative sizes in accordance with the different functions of these forelimbs.

Genetic, cytological, and molecular studies have greatly enhanced the understanding of evolution. In general, these studies support previously reconstructed evolutionary histories derived from anatomical comparisons, geographic distributions, and the fossil record, while refining many of the details and clarifying the molecular mechanisms of evolution. As methods for chemical staining and microscopic examination of chromosomes were developed, cytologists noticed that the chromosomes of related species are highly similar and, in many cases, can be aligned with one another. The aligned chromosomes of related species, however, frequently differ by noticeable rearrangements, such as inversions, translocations, fusions, and fissions. For instance, human and chimpanzee chromosomes differ by nine inversions and one chromosome fusion. Molecular evidence has revealed that the fusion and two of the inversions happened in the human ancestral lineage, whereas seven of the inversions happened in the chimpanzee ancestral lineage since the two lineages diverged from common ancestry. Comparative chromosomal analyses have allowed
scientists to reconstruct the chromosomal constitutions of several now-extinct common ancestral species.

Genome projects have generated massive amounts of DNA sequence data that reveal in exquisite detail the molecular evolutionary history of genomes. As an example, at least eight primate genomes (human, chimpanzee, gorilla, and rhesus macaque, among others) have been sequenced and annotated. They show that gene duplication followed by mutational divergence is a principal mechanism for the evolution of new genes. Pseudogenes
(nonfunctional, mutated copies of genes) are as numerous as functional genes in these genomes, and millions of transposable elements constitute approximately 43 percent of their DNA. Nearly all genes, pseudogenes, and transposable elements are in the same chromosomal locations in all three of these genomes, indicating that they arose in a common ancestor. Those that differ are highly similar to functional genes or currently active transposable elements, evidence that they arose recently, since the divergences of these species’ lineages from common ancestry.

The conclusion that emerges from this weight of independent evidence is that structural, chromosomal, and genomic homologies reflect an underlying evolutionary homology, or descent from common ancestry.

Punctuated Equilibrium

Although the order of appearance of organisms in the fossil record is consistent with evolutionary theory in general, evolution does not always proceed in a gradual, predictable way. Paleontologists have long emphasized that gradualism—that is, evolution by gradual changes proceeding at more or less a constant rate, eventually producing major changes—is often not supported by the fossil record. The fossil record more often shows a pattern of relatively minor change over long periods of time, punctuated by much shorter periods of rapid change. Stephen Jay Gould
and Niles Eldredge, both paleontologists, offered a hypothesis called punctuated equilibrium to explain this discrepancy.

Gould and Eldredge’s hypothesis recognizes the fact that the fossil record shows long periods of relative stasis (little change) punctuated by periods of rapid change, and consider this the principal mode for evolution. Instead of the strict neo-Darwinian view of gradual changes leading to large changes over time, Gould and Eldredge suggest that large changes are the result of a series of larger steps over a much shorter period of time. When first proposed, the punctuated equilibrium theory was subject to considerable skepticism, but it has gained more acceptance over time.

The Practice of Evolutionary Biology

Contemporary evolutionary biology builds upon the theoretical foundations of Darwinian evolution by natural selection, the modern synthesis of Darwinian evolution with Mendelian inheritance, augmentation of evolutionary theory with research on its mechanisms and processes, such as punctuated equilibrium and biological development, and integration of an enormous body of data from molecular studies and genome projects. Although the reality of evolution is no longer in doubt, considerable research is underway on the relative importance of various evolutionary mechanisms in the history of particular groups of organisms. Much effort continues to be directed at reconstructing the particular historical path that life on earth has taken and that has led to the enormous diversity of species in the past and present. Likewise, scientists seek a fuller understanding of how new species arise, as the process of speciation represents a watershed event separating microevolution and macroevolution.

Unlike many other fields of biology, evolutionary biology is not always amenable to tests of simple cause-and-effect hypotheses. Much of what evolutionary biologists are interested in understanding occurred in the past and over vast periods of time. In addition, the evolutionary outcomes observed in nature depend on such a large number of environmental, biological, and random factors that re-creating and studying the circumstances that could have led to a particular outcome is virtually impossible. Finally, organisms are complex creatures exposed to conflicting evolutionary pressures, such as the need to attract mates while simultaneously attempting to remain hidden from predators; such compromise-type situations are hard to simulate under experimental conditions.

Many evolutionary studies rely on making predictions about the patterns one would expect to observe in nature if evolution in one form or another were to have occurred, and such studies often involve synthesis of data derived from fieldwork, theoretical modeling, and laboratory analysis. While such indirect tests of evolutionary hypotheses are not based on the sort of controlled data that are generated in direct experiments, if employed appropriately the indirect tests can be equally valid and powerful. Their strength comes from the ability to formulate predictions based on one species or type of data that may then be supported or refuted by examining additional species or data from another area of biology. In this way, evolutionary biologists are able to use the history of life on earth as a natural experiment, and, like forensic scientists, to piece together clues to solve the greatest biological mystery of all.

Key Terms




adaptation


:

a genetically based characteristic that confers on an organism the ability to survive and reproduce under prevailing environmental conditions




evolution

:

the process of change in the genetic structure of a population over time; descent with modification




fitness

:

the relative reproductive contribution of one individual to the next generation as compared to that of others in the population





genetic drift


:

chance fluctuations in allele frequencies within a population, resulting from random processes in gamete formation and sampling, and variation in the number and genotypes of offspring produced by different individuals




genotype

:

the genetic constitution of an individual or group





natural selection


:

the phenomenon of differing survival and reproduction rates among various genotypes in response to external factors; the frequencies of alleles carried by favored genotypes, and the phenotypes conferred by those alleles, increase in succeeding generations





phylogeny


:

the history of descent of a group of species from a common ancestor





Bibliography

Carroll, Sean B. Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo. New York: Norton, 2006. Print.

Carroll, Sean B. The Making of the Fittest: DNA and the Ultimate Forensic Record of Evolution. New York: Norton, 2007. Print.

Coyne, Jerry A. Why Evolution Is True. New York: Viking, 2009. Print.

Darwin, Charles. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. 1859. Reprint. New York: Mod. Lib., 1998. Print.

Dawkins, Richard. The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe without Design. New York: Norton, 1996. Print.

Dawkins, Richard. Climbing Mount Improbable. New York: Norton, 1997. Print.

Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene. 30th anniv. ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.

Eldredge, Niles, and Stephen Jay Gould. “Punctuated Equilibria: An Alternative to Phyletic Gradualism.” Models in Paleobiology. Ed. Thomas J. M. Schopf. San Francisco: Freeman, 1972. Print.

Fairbanks, Daniel J. Relics of Eden: The Powerful Evidence of Evolution in Human DNA. Amherst: Prometheus, 2007. Print.

Freeman, Scott, and Jon C. Herron. Evolutionary Analysis. 5th ed. San Francisco: Cummings, 2012. Print.

Gould, Stephen Jay. Eight Little Piggies. New York: Norton, 1994. Print.

Pontarotti, Pierre. Evolutionary Biology: Exobiology and Evolutionary Mechanisms. New York: Springer, 2013. Print.

Quammen, David. Song of the Dodo. New York: Simon, 1997. Print.

Singh, Rama S., and Costas B. Krimbas, eds. Evolutionary Genetics: From Molecules to Morphology. New York: Cambridge UP, 2000. Print.

Soyer, Orkun S. Evolutionary Systems Biology. New York: Springer, 2012. Print.

Weiner, Jonathan. The Beak of the Finch: A Story of Evolution in Our Time. New York: Random, 1995. Print.

Johnny loves the weather and wants to be a meteorologist someday. He is failing his calculus class and tells his mom she does not understand why he...

A meteorologist is an individual that scientifically studies the atmosphere. Part of a meteorologist job is being an operational forecaster. An operational forecaster analyses weather conditions and issues forecasts, warnings and alerts to inform the public about severe weather conditions in an area.

Now this where calculus is important as an operational forecaster: 

In order to be an excellent operational forecaster one needs to be able to predict weather accurately. In order to predict weather correctly one has to develop excellent numerical weather models. These numerical weather models require a good understanding of calculus so that an operational forecaster an a deep understanding of atmospheric processes. These numerical models include variables such as temperature, humidity, pressure, etc. and can be solved using calculus thus enabling us to forecast weather accurately up to 7 days. 

Additionally, meteorology is a specialized mathematical field. An individual that does not take calculus during his academics will not likely succeed in the field and might be without a job. 

In Macbeth, why is Banquo afraid after Duncan's death in Act II?

In Act II, while he is a guest at Macbeth's castle in Inverness, Banquo seems to be afraid of his own thoughts and imaginings. He is worried about what the future holds as he gazes at the starless sky as a potent of dark things to come—"Their candles are all out" (2.1.5).

When Macbeth approaches, Banquo nervously calls for his sword, but is reassured that a friend is there. Macbeth then inquires of Banquo why he is "not yet at rest." Banquo replies that he has dreamed of the weird sisters, adding, "To you they have show'd some truth" (2.1.20). This remark implies that they have predicted Macbeth's becoming Thane of Cawdor. However, Macbeth pretends that he has given the witches no thought: "I think not of them." He probably does this in the hope of preventing any suspicion of him by Banquo after he later completes his intended act against the Chain of Being (the murder of King Duncan).

Perhaps, though, Macbeth reconsiders his words, for he may now recall how deeply moved he was at the time of the meeting with the witches, as well as how Banquo observed aloud, "Look, how our partner's rapt" (1.2.143). If he acts disinterested now, Banquo may again become suspicious, wondering why he denies that he was not also disturbed by the predictions they heard. For whatever reason, Macbeth speaks again to Banquo, this time as though wishing to draw Banquo closer to him by his joining in his cause:

If you shall cleave to my consent, when 'tis
It shall make honour for you. (2.1.25-26)

But, because Macbeth's intentions are nebulous, Banquo is suspicious. So, he replies cautiously,

                       ...So I lose none
In seeking to augment it, but still keep
My bosom franchised and allegiance clear,
I shall be counsell'd. (2.1.27-30)

This rather ambiguous answer is, nevertheless, an implication that Banquo suspects Macbeth of some dishonorable intentions. Hearing these words, Macbeth makes no reply, only bidding Banquo good night: "Good repose the while!" and they both make their exits.

What details in chapters twenty-seven and twenty-eight add to the mounting tension before Jem and Scout are attacked?

In chapter 27, Scout reveals that three major things happened before Bob Ewell attacked the children. First, Mr. Ewell got a real job and lost it within a few days because he was too lazy to do anything at it. Of course he vocally and publicly blamed Atticus for the loss. Next, Judge Taylor was reading one Sunday night when he heard "an irritating scratching noise" near the back of his house (248). The judge thought it was his dog, but upon further investigation he discovered his back screen door cut and swinging open. Then he saw a shadow disappear into the night and sat with a gun across his lap for the rest of the evening. Finally, Bob Ewell started intimidating Tom's widow, Helen, as she was going to work for Link Deas. He would "chunk" at her--which probably means he spit after her--then he followed her down the road near his house, until Mr. Deas called him out on it and told him he'd have him arrested if he kept bothering his cook (249). 

The Halloween carnival is held at the school in chapter 28 and Jem escorts Scout around the Radley house, onto the school yard, and into the building before she must perform in her ham costume. Cecil Jacobs jokingly jumps out of the darkness and scares Jem and Scout terribly. This foreshadows Bob Ewell jumping out at them later that evening, but that won't be for a laugh. In fact, when Jem and Scout hear someone walking behind them after the Halloween carnival, they think it is Cecil Jacobs trying to scare them again. 

"I would show Cecil that we knew he was behind us and we were ready for him. 'Cecil Jacobs is a big wet he-en!' I yelled suddenly, turning around.

We stopped. There was no acknowledgement save he-en bouncing off the distant schoolhouse wall. . . It was unlike Cecil to hold out for so long; once he pulled a joke he'd repeat it time and again. We should have been leapt at already" (260-261).

When the kids realize that it must not be Cecil following them, terror really starts to take over. They hear someone's cotton pants rubbing together and the sound of a man's steps. When those steps increase with speed, Jem tells Scout to run. It's at this point, under the Radley tree, that the children are attacked by Bob Ewell.

Where are Marcus and his friends going when they skip school in the book "Little Brother"?

In Chapter One, Marcus receives an alert from his friend Darryl that “Something big is going down” in the alternate reality game Harajuku Fun Madness.  Marcus and Darryl decide to leave school early to hunt down a clue.  They decide to leave early rather than wait until after school so that they can be the first to discover the clue. 

In Chapter Two, they meet their friends Van and Jolu at the Cable Cars.  The four friends attempt to decode a set of GPS coordinates for the game.  They plan to start at the Nikko Hotel and then continue into the Tenderloin area—a part of the city where drug use, prostitution, and other questionable activities are prominent.

They are on O’Farrell Street when the attacks happen.

In Pygmalion, what is Liza's one quality that most fascinates Higgins and Pickering?

Higgins and Pickering are fascinated by the way Liza speaks.

Higgins is a scientist of phonetics. When he meets Liza in the rain, he jots down her words phonetically and then guesses her exact birthplace from her accent.

Pickering is a linguist of Indian dialects. Pickering is on his way to introduce himself to Professor Higgins when they meet by accident on the corner in the rain. Pickering observes Higgins recording Liza's words and guessing her origin. He finds Higgins's ability to pinpoint a person's birth place from their accent admirable.

Later, Higgins and Pickering are socializing at Higgins's house when Liza comes and offers to pay a shilling to Higgins to teach her to talk like a lady. Pickering offers to pay for the lessons under the condition that Higgins can pass Liza off as a duchess at an upcoming garden party. Higgins therefore is initially interested in Liza for her cockney accent, while Pickering is interested in whether Liza can change her accent and learn to speak like a duchess. 

How does Atticus respond when he suspects what Scout, Jem, and Dill are doing?

Jem comes up with the idea to play a game about Boo Radley and his family.  The game is based on a basic script with roles.  Scout plays Mrs. Radley, Dill plays Old Mr. Radley, and Jem plays Boo.  The key scene in their game is when Boo stabs his father in the leg with a pair of scissors.  When Calpurnia is not looking, they take a pair of sewing scissors from the drawer where the sewing supplies are kept.  Jem pretends to stab Dill in the leg with the sewing scissors.

One day, they are playing their game outside the house and they do not notice "Atticus standing on the sidewalk looking at [them], slapping a rolled magazine against his knee" (To Kill a Mockingbird, Chapter 4).  He sees them playing their game with Jem holding the scissors.  Atticus asks the children what they are doing, but Jem evades his father's question.  Atticus asks about the scissors, but Jem continues to evade the question.  Atticus is suspicious:

"Give me those scissors," Atticus said.  "They're no things to play with.  Does this by any chance have anything to do with the Radleys?"

"No sir," said Jem, reddening.

"I hope it doesn't," he said shortly, and went inside the house.

Atticus suspects that the game is about the Radleys, but he does not know for sure.  He chooses not to accuse the children, though he expresses his disapproval of a game about the Radley family.

Explain the relationship between Progressivism and American Imperialism including the entry of the US in World War 1?

The connection is (in short) that many of the most powerful progressives, like Teddy Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson were also big time imperialists.  For example, when Roosevelt issued his Roosevelt Corollary, he had it in mind for America to be the "policeman" of the Western hemisphere.  When Wilson issued his ideas on what became known as "Missionary" diplomacy, it was clear that he wanted to "educate" the rest of the western world on how to live a good, clean, democratic life as a nation.  My point being this, the changes made in the progressive era led to great American achievement and success.  We needed to influence other areas of the world to maintain that success; be it for resources of some type or for trade purposes.  In order to do that effectively, we had to assume a more prominent role in world affairs.  In so doing, we increased the odds of having conflict with another nation.  America's role in international conflict was all but inevitable at that point.

In the play, Macbeth, what does lady Macbeth think of her husband?

Lady Macbeth thinks differently of her husband at different times in the play, depending on the situation. In Act 1, scene 5, after she has received his letter, she expresses pride at his achieving the title Thane of Cawdor. However, she feels that her husband is too gentle and kind to drive his ambition further, for the witches had also told him that he would be 'king hereafter.' Lady Macbeth thinks that her husband does not have the ruthlessness required in achieving such a lofty goal, for, surely, he can only become king if he should do so by foul means. She states:

...yet do I fear thy nature;
It is too full o' the milk of human kindness
To catch the nearest way: thou wouldst be great;
Art not without ambition, but without
The illness should attend it: what thou wouldst highly,
That wouldst thou holily; wouldst not play false,
And yet wouldst wrongly win:

She knows that Macbeth is ambitious, but she also recognizes that he does not have the malevolence required to achieve what he wants. She wishes that he should rush home so that she can fill his head with evil thoughts and drive away all ideas that might withhold him from committing the foul acts that he would need to perform in order to achieve the crown.

Later, when Macbeth arrives at the castle, she thinks that he is too open-faced and expressive and that others might read in his face 'strange matters.' She asks him to adopt a different look and present an image of goodness and conviviality, whilst he is actually a viper ready to strike:

...look like the innocent flower,
But be the serpent under't.

Once they have plotted to kill king Duncan, Macbeth tells her, 'We shall proceed no further in this business.' He has given considerable thought to their plan and wants to end it. Lady Macbeth is angry and thinks that he is a coward. She accuses him of having expressed a hope as if he were drunk. She is obviously disappointed at his sudden cowardice and says that she would from this time measure his love on that basis. She compares him to a cat that wants to eat fish but is afraid to get its feet wet.

She, furthermore, thinks of him as one who cannot keep a promise for she asks him what has now made him break the vow that he had made to her. As an example of what she requires of him, she mentions that she would rip a suckling baby from her breast and dash its brains out if that had been what she promised to do. She uses this disgusting image to urge her husband into reconsidering his decision.

Lady Macbeth thinks her husband is afraid when he considers the possibility of their failure in this plot. She tells him:

...screw your courage to the sticking-place,
And we'll not fail.

In other words, he needs to regain his courage and they would be successful. She then carefully outlines her plan to ensure the success of their abhorrent mischief.

There are a number of instances where Lady Macbeth questions her husband's character and courage. When he, for instance, returns from Duncan's chamber after having murdered him, Macbeth expresses the fact that his hands are 'a sorry sight.' She believes him foolish to think so and reprimands him. She thinks him weak-minded to spend so much thought on the fact that he could not say 'amen' after the murder and that he had heard voices. She calls him 'brainsickly' for thinking in such terms.

When Macbeth refuses to return to Duncan's chamber to replace the guards' knives, his wife loses patience with him and calls him 'infirm of purpose' once again reflecting on his courage. She later returns with her hands all bloody and emphasizes the fact that she thinks he is a coward by saying:

My hands are of your colour; but I shame
To wear a heart so white.

This belief that her husband is a coward is again confirmed later when Macbeth imagines seeing Banquo's ghost after he had him murdered. When he tells her that it is a terrible vision that he sees, she remarks:

O proper stuff!
This is the very painting of your fear:
This is the air-drawn dagger which, you said,
Led you to Duncan. O, these flaws and starts,
Impostors to true fear, would well become
A woman's story at a winter's fire,
Authorized by her grandam. Shame itself!
Why do you make such faces? When all's done,
You look but on a stool.

She is ashamed of him and how he behaves. She calls him 'unmanned in folly' - his foolishness makes a coward of him.

It is probably Lady Macbeth's resolute determination and her ruthless criticism of her husband as well as her urging him to commit the vile deeds that he did, which eventually turn Macbeth into the malevolent and ruthless tyrant he becomes. In the end, the depth of his evil becomes too much for her and she cannot contain her guilt. She loses her mind and eventually commits suicide. 

What is Montresor's concept of personal honor?

Montresor's concept of personal honor has a great deal to do with his pride, both individually and in terms of his family.  He believes that his need to exact revenge on Fortunato is a matter of honor.  He says, "I must not only punish, but punish with impunity."  He needs to repay Fortunato for his insults as well as figure out a way to do so where he will not be punished in return, or else his revenge really will not count.  He also wants to make sure that Fortunato knows who exactly is responsible for his ultimate demise, and this being known is a matter of personal pride and honor as well.  

Moreover, when Fortunato asks, Montresor tells him that his family motto is "You will not harm me with impunity," translated from the Latin.  Montresor also mentions that the Montresors "'were a great and numerous family.'"  In other words, it sounds as though they no longer are great and numerous, and also that it is important to Montresor to retain the family's honor by upholding their motto (which he knows and has already alluded to earlier in the story).  Thus, his family pride and honor further compel him to redress the wrongs done to him by Fortunato.  His sense of honor, then, has a great deal to do with his pride.

Who is the female lead in the story "Dead Men's Path"?

The female lead in the story is Nancy Obi. With her husband, Michael, Nancy aims to work towards modernizing the backward school system her husband, the new principal, has inherited. Nancy also dreams of introducing new cultural trends into the school district.

In the story, Nancy is enthralled with Michael's love and respect for "modern methods" of education. She completely understands his suspicion of "old and superannuated" teachers who would be more at home in the markets of Onitsha. Even while she celebrates what she thinks is the bright future of Ndume Central School, she laments the fact that there are no other wives for her to lord over. The other teachers are all young and unmarried, and she must content herself with overseeing the renovation of the school grounds instead. In due time, however, the rains help bring Nancy's dream garden to fruition. Beautiful flowering shrubs and plants give the old school compound a robust, new look.

Nancy's pride is short-lived, however. When her husband neglects to show consideration for the religious sensibilities of the villagers, the couple soon learn that their high-handed ways will only bring about negative results in this school district.

How many ml of 250 M H2S04 are required to completely react with 25.0 ml of 150 M NaOH?

The molarities given in this problem are not realistic. NaOH has a molar solubility of about 17 moles per liter at 25ºC, and concentrated sulfuric acid is about 18M. I'll explain the process for solving the problem then you can substitute the correct molarities if those given are incorrect.

This is a neutralization problem. When the NaOH is completely neutralized the moles of acid (H+) and moles of base (OH-) reacted will be equal. Since molarity (M) is moles of solute per liter of solution, moles is molarity times liters:

M = moles/liter and moles = (molarity)(liters)

One factor that we must consider is that sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is diprotic. That means it produces two moles of H+ per mole of H2SO4:

`H_2SO_4(aq) + 2NaOH_((aq)) -> Na_2SO_4_(aq) + 2H_2O`

The number of moles of H2SO4 required for neutralization is equal to half the number of moles of NaOH, or:

2(molarity)(volume) of acid = (molarity)(volume) of base

(dividing both sides by 2 shows that moles acid = (1/2) moles base)

The volume doesn't have to be in liters as long as the same volume unit is used for both solutions. 

Now we'll rearrange to solve for ml of H2SO4:

ml of H2SO4 = (NaOH molarity)(ml of NaOH)/(H2SO4 molarity)

 = (150 M)(25.0 ml)/(250 M) = 15 ml H2SO4

In the novel Lord of the Flies, what are Jack and Ralph's ethical and moral decisions?

Both Ralph and Jack in Lord of the Flies violate moral codes of conduct, but Ralph shows sorrow and attempts to correct his conduct while Jack continues unabated in his immoral ways. In the very first chapter of the book, Ralph violates Piggy's trust by mocking him about his nickname and telling it to others. When he sees that Piggy's feelings are hurt, he "hovered between two courses of apology or further insult." Even though his apology isn't as heartfelt as it could have been, at least he doesn't hurt him further. Ralph is genuinely troubled by having lost a littlun in the fire and makes attempts to control the fire and how the boys behave with it thereafter. He takes his role as leader seriously and tries to think about others rather than himself most of the time. Although Ralph takes part in the mock pig hunt where Robert gets beat up a little, he is uneasy about it afterward. Ralph's biggest moral failing is taking part in the wild dance where Simon dies. He is horrified afterward and calls it murder. To calm his burning conscience, he agrees with Piggy on an excuse, denying his part in it. The weight of the two deaths on his conscience may be a big reason for the changes in Ralph's mental capacity after Simon dies. He begins to have trouble focusing on being rescued. When Jack steals Piggy's glasses, Ralph determines to take the moral high ground and goes to confront Jack at Castle Rock. He refuses to paint himself like a savage, a sign that he is clinging to traditional behavior rather than the disdain for rules that the paint gives the boys. He tells Jack he is a thief and demands Piggy's glasses back. His argument to Jack is a moral argument. Because of his own morals, Ralph finds it hard to believe that Jack's group can be such savages that they want to harm or kill him when he has done nothing to them.

Jack shows less compunction about being cruel to others or neglectful of his duties. He mocks Piggy and shows contempt for the littluns, even joking that they could use a younger boy as a "real pig" so they can kill him. He lets the signal fire go out at a key time when they could have been rescued and then makes excuses for his actions. During a meeting he punches Piggy in a rage and breaks his glasses, and when Ralph calls him out on it, he apologizes, but it is insincere; he only does it so he can win the boys over to his side with his display of magnanimity. He sows dissension in the group, leading a rebellion against Ralph, and entices the boys away with promises of fun and hunting rather than taking an interest in the long-term welfare of the group. He leads the crazed feast where Simon is killed and seems to have no regrets about it. His band steals Piggy's glasses, and when Ralph confronts him about being a thief, Jack kidnaps Samneric and charges at Ralph, wounding him with a spear. When Piggy is murdered in front of him by one of his tribe, Jack simply warns Ralph that he will suffer a similar fate. By this time, it is clear Jack has abandoned all moral principles, being willing to steal, kidnap, maim, and kill for what he wants.

What is generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)?

Introduction

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized by excessive worry about a variety of topics. This anxiety occurs every day, over a period of at least six months. The worries tend to be difficult to control and to diminish the person’s quality of life. Signs and symptoms of GAD include restlessness, difficulty concentrating, fatigue, irritability, impatience, being easily distracted, muscle tension, trouble falling asleep or staying asleep, excessive sweating or hot flashes, shortness of breath, diarrhea, headache, stomachache, having trouble swallowing, feeling light-headed, and having to go to the bathroom frequently.

Possible Causes

The cause of generalized anxiety disorder is not known, although there are a number of theories as to its cause. There may be a hereditary tendency to develop GAD. Some of the causative theories are based on experiences in the person’s life, such as traumatic events occurring in childhood, serious illness, and stressful life experiences. Anxiety may be an inherent part of the person’s personality. Some medications and medical conditions can cause GAD. It is also theorized that persons with GAD may produce low levels of brain chemicals such as serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), norepinephrine, and dopamine, which are thought to improve mood. It is thought that the amygdala, a small structure within the brain, is a depository for memories of frightening and other highly emotional events. Persons with GAD may have an overly sensitive amygdala that tends to react to situations that are not actually threatening. Questions remain as to whether physical changes in the brain lead to anxiety or whether stressful situations and the resulting anxiety lead to changes in the brain.

Diagnosis

In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association published its most recent edition of the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). The DSM-5 describes all currently identified mental health problems that may receive a formal medical diagnosis in the United States. In this edition, the section on anxiety disorders is split into twelve individual sub-disorders: separation anxiety disorder, selective mutism, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, panic attack, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder, anxiety disorder due to another medical condition, other specified anxiety disorder, and unspecified anxiety disorder.

The diagnosis of GAD is a subjective one and is based on the patient’s reporting of excessive worrying about a variety of topics that has lasted at least six continuous months. GAD can develop in people of all ages, including children. However, all anxiety disorders, including GAD, are more common in women and in older persons.

Treatment Options

The treatment for GAD is antianxiety medications, cognitive behavior therapy(CBT), or both. Antianxiety medications used to treat GAD include benzodiazepines, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants, and an azpirone derivative.

Benzodiazepines are the first medications prescribed for GAD. They cause mental and physical relaxation by increasing levels of GABA in the brain. They include alprazolam (Xanax), lorazepam (Ativan), clonazepam (Klonopin), and diazepam (Valium). Benzodiazepines are highly addictive and their use should be monitored.

SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) are drugs, developed in the 1990s, that interfere with the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin in the brain, leading to higher levels of serotonin in the body. These medications are less habit-forming than the benzodiazepines and have fewer side effects than older antidepressant medications. SSRIs include fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine(Paxil), citalopram (Celexa), sertraline (Zoloft), and escitalopram (Lexapro).

Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) interfere with the reabsorption of both serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain. There are two drugs in this group: venlafaxine (Effexor) and duloxetine (Cymbalta).

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), which were developed in the 1970s, interfere with the reabsorption of serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain, and they increase the sensitivity of the serotonin and norepinephrine receptors. TCAs have more side effects and more serious side effects than SSRIs, including altering the rhythm of the heart. TCAs include amitriptyline (Elavil), clomipramine (Anafranil), and imipramine (Tofranil).

There is only one azapirone derivative, buspirone (BuSpar). Buspirone increases the activity of serotonin and decreases the activity of dopamine. It accomplishes this by binding to the serotonin and dopamine receptors in the brain. Buspirone has few side effects compared with other drugs used to treat GAD.

Cognitive behavior therapy increases the levels of serotonin and norepinephrine in the body by changing the negative thought patterns of the patient. Persons with anxiety disorders, including GAD, tend to get caught up in their excessive reactions to stressful situations. Cognitive behavior therapy teaches them to stop these negative thoughts and to evaluate the validity of their fears.

Bibliography

Baldwin, David S., and B. E. Leonard. Anxiety Disorders. New York: Karger, 2013. Print.

Bourne, Edmund J., and Lorna Garano. Coping with Anxiety: Ten Simple Ways to Relieve Anxiety, Fear, and Worry. Oakland, Calif.: New Harbinger, 2003. Print.

Dugas, Michel J., and Melisa Robichaud. Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: From Science to Practice. New York: Routledge, 2007. Print.

Gliatto, Michael F. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder.” American Family Physician 62 (2000): 1509–600, 1602. Print.

Graham, P. J., and Shirley Reynolds. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Children and Families. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2013. Print.

McKay, Dean, and Eric A. Storch. Handbook of Assessing Variants and Complications in Anxiety Disorders. New York: Springer, 2013. Print.

Mufson, Michael, et al., eds. Coping with Anxiety and Phobias. Boston: Harvard Medical School, 2002. Print.

Rugh, Jayne L., and William C. Sanderson. Treating Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Evidence-Based Strategies, Tools, and Techniques. New York: Guilford Press, 2004. Print.

What is the literary device used in Act 1, Scene 2?

When Hamlet speaks to his stepfather and uncle, the new king, he employs a pun to indicate his displeasure at the king's quick marriage to Hamlet's mother after his brother, Hamlet's father's, death. King Claudius asks why the clouds still hang upon Hamlet, referencing his sadness and continued mourning. Hamlet replies that he is "too much in the sun," where "sun" is a pun on the words "son" and "sun"; he matches the king's metaphor having to do with clouds with "sun," but he also implies that he is "son" too many times now that he is both his father's and mother's son as well as his uncle/stepfather's (1.2.69).  

Hamlet also employs an allusion to the Garden of Eden when he describes life as an "unweeded garden / That grows to seed. Things rank and gross in nature / possess it merely" (1.2.139-141). This reference alludes to the Garden of Eden, or Paradise, after the fall of Adam and Eve. Once God banishes them from the garden because they have disobeyed him, it is no longer a paradise. Nothing good seems left to Hamlet now that his father is gone and his mother, he feels, has betrayed his father. His innocence seems to be lost, just as innocence was lost in the Garden of Eden when Eve ate from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Like Eve, Hamlet now believes that he knows evil.

He employs another allusion, this time to Greek mythology, when he compares his mother to Niobe, a woman who so grieved the loss of her children that she could not stop crying. Hamlet says that "[Gertrude] followed [his] poor father's body, / Like Niobe, all tears [...]" and yet, now, just a short time later, she seems fine and happy with her new husband (1.2.152-153). He points out his mother's hypocrisy, or, perhaps, her lack of true feelings by suggesting that she seemed like Niobe then, but is miraculously fine now.

What are two major themes in The Chrysalids?

Two themes are no good comes from an oppressive society and stand up for your friends.  

The first theme in the story is that oppressive societies eventually implode.  While we don’t see that happen yet, we see the beginnings of it.  Waknuk’s society is based off of religious principles supposedly derived from some post-apocalyptic event.  People feel that anyone or anything that does not conform to the True Image is blasphemous and you should get rid of it.  That includes anything from crops to people. 

When David and the other telepaths meet the Sealand woman (in their minds at least) she explains to them that the way they have been treated is wrong, and the sign of a backwards society.

The static, the enemy of change, is the enemy of life, and therefore our implacable enemy. [Consider] some of the things that these people, who have taught you to think of them as your fellows, have done. [The] pattern scarcely varies wherever a pocket of the older species is trying to preserve itself. (Ch. 17) 

Although the Sealanders may be advanced enough to accept change, that does not help the people of Waknuk.  They live under a state of religious tyranny.  When people are trying to hide babies and committing suicide, you know that there is trouble in your community. 

When David is still a little boy, he meets Sophie and learns that she has six toes.  This makes her blasphemous in Waknuk, and her parents should have turned her in when she was born.  Children need a certificate that shows they meet the requirements of the True Image.  If they don’t get it they are cast out.  Sophie’s parents did not turn her in, and instead hid her. 

David tries to keep Sophie’s secret, but one day another boy sees her and David with her.  His father finds out and asks him about it.  David tries to keep from telling him anything, trying to protect Sophie as long as he can.  His father beats it out of him though, and he feels terrible. 

[My] tears soaked into my pillow. By now it was not so much the bodily hurts that brought them: it was bitterness, self-contempt, and abasement. (Ch. 5) 

David tried to protect Sophie.  He also tries to protect the other telepaths when they have to go on the run.  He believes in the importance of looking out for your friends, no matter how dangerous it is.

`(1/4, 3/2), (1/3, 1/2)` Find the inclination 'theta' (in radians and degrees) of the line with slope m.

Given `(1/4,3/2), (1/3, 1/2)`

Find the slope of the line passing through the two points using the formula

`m=(y_2-y_1)/(x_2-x_1)`

`m=(1/2-3/2)/(1/3-1/4)` =-12

The slope of the line is -12.

Find the inclination.

`theta=arctan(-12)=94.8^@=1.6539` radians.

The inclination is 94.8 degrees or 1.6539 radians.

Why does Denny get himself drunk and say that neglectful fathers don't get custody of their little girls?

In the story, Denny makes the comment that 'rapists don't get custody of their little girls' after he is charged with the third degree rape of a minor. The supposed victim is fifteen year old Annika, the sister of one of Eve's relatives. Eve is, of course, Denny's deceased wife.

With the custody battle for his six year old daughter, Zoe, looming large on the horizon and the false rape accusation by Annika in play, Denny finds himself in a deplorable situation. Although he did not rape Annika, the young teenager is determined to make his life miserable because he rejected her sexual advances. Although Denny's attorney, Mark Fein, thinks the false rape accusation is a ploy by Trish and Maxwell (Eve's parents) to win custody of little Zoe, Denny is committed to fight for his daughter.

Meanwhile, Maxwell tells Trish that he is determined to exploit Denny's fragile situation to their advantage in custody proceedings. So, at this point in Denny's life, everything seems to be conspiring against him. He knows without a shadow of a doubt that rape is a felony and that no felons will ever be given custody of innocent little girls in a court of law. Although Denny tries to stay calm, the text tells us what Enzo notices about his owner: Denny is stressed out and depressed. This is possibly the reason that Denny gets drunk and says what he does.

At a moment of weakness, Denny gives in to his despair. However, we later learn from Enzo that Denny does put away the liquor. With the love of his daughter and the memory of his wife buoying him, Denny decides to fight to win custody of Zoe despite his seemingly hopeless situation.

"No race has ever been won in the first corner," he said. "But plenty of races have been lost there."... "That's right," he said to me. "If we're going to be a cliche, let's be a positive cliche."Yes, the race is long- to finish first, first you must finish.

What is outpatient treatment for addiction?

Causes of Addiction

The reasons people abuse drugs and alcohol are innumerable and often complex. Some become addicted to a drug after the first recreational use. Others find comfort in the escape that the effects of drugs and alcohol provide them: Any physical or emotional pain or memories of past trauma are numbed as are any thoughts or emotions that may be causing anxiety or stress. Still others abuse medications that doctors prescribe for particular ailments or illnesses.

Research has shown that a high percentage of drug are survivors of past emotional and/or physical trauma and have resultant PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder). Many have experienced physical, emotional, verbal, or sexual abuse as children or adolescents. Others survived being raised in violent households with quarreling parents who were not able to meet the emotional needs of their children. Women in physically or sexually abusive marriages are more likely to seek comfort in drugs and alcohol than are women in healthy relationships.

Men who are domestic violence offenders also are more likely to abuse drugs and alcohol—and act violently toward others while intoxicated—than men who are not violent. It is important to note, however, that drug and alcohol abuse is not a proven cause of domestic violence and that domestic violence is not a proven cause of drug and alcohol abuse. These situations are known as correlated rather than causal.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered (LGBT) men and women are more likely to use drugs—and continue to use them throughout their lifetime—than are heterosexual individuals. The drug use is often in response to the frequent and perceived discrimination and abuse that LGBT individuals may face because of their sexual orientation or gender expression.

When a person abuses a drug too frequently, he or she can become addicted to that substance. Another cause of drug addiction is genetics. It is true that some people are predisposed to addiction because of family history and genetics. Abuse also may lead to addiction if the person has a mental illness, such as antisocial personality disorder, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia. Drugs may ease the symptoms of these conditions or can make living with them more bearable. Thus, people may become addicted to drugs or alcohol as they attempt to self-medicate their disorders.

People also are more likely to abuse drugs if they enjoy the effects the substances have on their brains. Opioids, for example, block the nerve receptors in the brain that help the body to sense pain. Opioids also engage the receptors in the brain that detect pleasure. The drug causes users to enter a euphoric state in which they experience stress relief and a carefree emotional state. People who enjoy this sensation may come to think they need the drug to be happy. Users report feeling an intense desire to use the drug again after their first encounter with it, despite the fact that their body is not physically addicted to it at that point. Repeated and ongoing use of opioids causes significant and detectable changes in the brain and the brain's chemistry. Chronic use requires a period of one to three years of abstinence for the brain to heal.

The first step in treating drug abusers and addicts typically involves their loved ones—people who take notice of their behavioral changes, physical appearance, and drug use. These persons may convince or force the substance abuser to seek treatment, which is usually first in the form of calling call his or her primary physician or family doctor. After an initial screening in which the doctor runs a series of tests and asks the patient questions about his or her drug use, the doctor may refer the patient to a specialist for an accurate diagnosis. If the individual requires detoxification from the substance, they are referred to a medical facility or specialized detox and recovery program.

Research has found that people living with mood disorders have a greater likelihood of becoming addicted to drugs than do individuals without such mental health conditions. In addition, patients with drug disorders are two times as likely to be diagnosed with a mood or anxiety disorder. Men seeking help for drug abuse are often diagnosed with antisocial personality disorders while women are likely to exhibit behavior indicative of depression, anxiety, or post-traumatic stress disorder.

Screening and Diagnosis

The first step in treating drug abusers and addicts typically involves their loved ones—people who take notice of their behavioral changes, physical appearance, and drug use. These persons may convince or force the substance abuser to seek treatment, which is usually first in the form of calling call his or her primary physician or family doctor. After an initial screening in which the doctor runs a series of tests and asks the patient questions about his or her drug use, the doctor may refer the patient to a specialist for an accurate diagnosis. If the individual requires detoxification from the substance, they are referred to a medical facility or specialized detox and recovery program.

Another important part of the screening and diagnosis process is the discovery of other physical ailments, coexisting drug addictions, or mental health issues, which is referred to as comorbidity. Specific medications and methods used in addiction treatment may counteract other drugs the patient is using or may interfere with other conditions the patient may have; it is crucial to discover all illnesses, diseases, and dependencies before treatment begins. Often times, mental health issues cannot be addressed unless and until the individual is free from drugs and alcohol for a period of time.

Diagnosing comorbidity is a critical step in addictions treatment; treating a patient addicted to cocaine requires a different approach than the one taken to treat a patient addicted to prescription painkillers who is simultaneously struggling to overcome depression, anxiety, or a personality disorder. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, 60 percent of substance abusers also have a mental illness. A mental illness may be present before a person starts using drugs, or a person might start using drugs before becoming mentally ill. Both conditions also may be the result of similar risk factors, such as genetic predisposition and environmental triggers (such as high stress or trauma).

Through laboratory screenings, medical professionals may discover that vital organs such as the lungs, liver, or heart have been damaged by repetitive drug abuse. They also may discover conditions such Hepatitis C or HIV, which are common among individuals who share needles used for intravenous drug use.

Outpatient Treatment for Addiction and Substance Abuse

Ideally, a person who is abusing or is addicted to one or more substances and who is also dealing with an emotional disorder should be treated in the same facility, often referred to a duel diagnosis facility. This does not often occur in the United States, however, and duel diagnosis facilities are often difficult find. Too often, a patient's substance use disorder is view as separate and unrelated to the patient's mental health disorder, and patients are sent to multiple facilities to speak to a variety of medical and mental health professionals, psychotherapists, and drug and alcohol counselors. Holistic approaches to addressing addiction, whereby one team of professionals with a variety of specialties cares for all of an individual's medical and mental health needs, are becoming more commonplace in the United States as the stigma of addiction is reduced and acceptance of substance use disorder as a brain disease becomes more accepted.

A common course of outpatient treatment for addiction an Intensive Outpatient Program (IOP), where individuals attend daily group therapy sessions and one-on-one counseling. IOP attendees also meet weekly with a psychiatrist to discuss medication needs such as medications to help calm cravings, fight depression, or reduce anxiety. Naltrexone, Antabuse, and Campral are common drugs administered to alcohol addicts. Naltrexone also can be distributed to opioid addicts. Even those addicted to nicotine can use bupropion or Verenicline (Chantix) in addition to nicotine gum, patches, nose sprays, or other nicotine replacement products. IOPs typically meet every day for an average of six hours a day, five days a week for anywhere from three to six weeks, depending the participant's need and desire as well as what the individual's insurance will approve.

In group therapy sessions, members speak about their drug use in front of other persons who understand what they are going through. If they are uncomfortable with—or in are in need of supplementing—group therapy, a drug and alcohol counselor or psychologist may counsel them independently. Therapy helps patients learn to deal with their cravings, the issues that led them to drugs in the first place, and to learn to begin to live a drug-free life. It enables them to set goals for the future and to repair strained or broken relationships with friends and family members.

To prevent relapse, people recovering from substance abuse and addiction are reminded to pay attention to their bodies and minds and to ask for help when they need it. The relapse process includes three stages: emotional, mental, and physical. If a patient feels anxious, defensive, or angry and misses group meetings or doctors’ visits, he or she could be in the first stage of relapse. Combined with poor sleeping and eating habits and mood swings, this first stage may lead a patient to postacute withdrawal. Patients are instructed to reach out to medical professionals, friends, or family members if they feel they are in danger of relapse.

Persons suffering from a drug or alcohol addiction may require rehabilitation to overcome their physical and emotional dependencies and resume a normal life. Rehabilitation for addiction often involves a series of steps.

If an individual is addicted to alcohol or benzodiazepines, medical detoxification is required because detoxification from these substances can result in death if not monitored by health officials. Opioid detoxification, while not usually fatal, is extremely painful and patients find the process much more bearable in a supervised, medical setting. Detox is a process that removes the toxic substances from the body. Even if the ultimate goal is to attend an outpatient program, patients are required to be drug- and alcohol-free, and detox is often the first step.

Many addicts also have a mental illness. Therefore, many types of therapy are used to help the addicted individual deal with whatever situation has most likely contributed to the addiction. Cognitive behavior therapy, family therapy, and group therapy are often used to help individuals understand their patterns of maladaptive behavior and to teach them better strategies for identifying, thinking about, and coping with situations or people that may trigger the addictive behavior and cravings. Medications such as Campral may be used to help people with alcohol addictions. Suboxone may be used to assist opioid addicts by reducing withdrawal symptoms and cravings. Therapists also may introduce a twelve-step program, which involves group therapy and support to keep addicts clean and sober.

Research has found that the majority of those seeking help for addiction are men, as women are less likely to admit that they have substance abuse problems and are traditionally responsible for child care, thus making it difficult to attend inpatient programs or even IOPs unless their children are older and in school during the day. Most rehabilitation facilities or drug and alcohol centers are not equipped to care for children and do not offer babysitting or daycare services.

Outpatient treatment is most often used for persons who come from a somewhat stable environment and home life. For example, someone who is married and has a steady job would benefit from outpatient treatment. However, a celebrity who travels from city to city or someone who lives in an extremely unstable, chaotic environment would most benefit from an inpatient program. Additionally, someone with a severe psychiatric illness would benefit from an inpatient program.

Bibliography

Capuzzi, David, and Mark D. Stauffer. Foundations of Addictions Counseling. 3rd ed. Boston: Pearson, 2015. Print.

Desai, Anjuli, and Frank John English Falco. "Substance Abuse Recovery Groups." Substance Abuse. New York: Springer, 2015. 331–36. Print.

Gifford, Steven. "Differences Between Outpatient and Inpatient Treatment Programs." Psych Central. Pych Central, 30 Jan. 2013. Web. 3 Nov. 2015.

Gottheil, Edward, ed. Intensive Outpatient Treatment for the Addictions. New York: Haworth Medical, 1997. Print.

Kaye, Alan David, et al. Substance Abuse: Inpatient and Outpatient Management for Every Clinician. New York: Springer, 2015. Print.

"National Survey of Substance Abuse Treatment Services (N-SSATS), 2013: Data on Substance Abuse Treatment Facilities." SAMHSA. Dept. of Public Health and Human Services, Sept. 2014. Web. 4 Nov. 2015.

"Substance Abuse Therapy: Inpatient vs. Outpatient Therapy." UT San Diego. San Diego Union-Tribune, 2015. Web. 3 Nov. 2015.

What are the conditions of the country at the time?

Conditions in Ireland in 1729 are incredibly bad for the Irish.  For many years, wealthy English had been purchasing land in Ireland so that, by the time "A Modest Proposal" is published, 90% of the land in Ireland is owned by the English.  These landowners raised rents in order to make more money, rendering it nearly impossible for the Irish tenant farmers to pay their rents and feed and clothe their families (which were typically large).  This meant that some people had to abandon the land their families had worked for generations and others had to choose whether to pay rent or feed their children.  The number of beggars in the streets increased.  Crime went up.  It seemed that, as the English got fatter and fatter on their wealth, the Irish got thinner and thinner while they starved; one group seemed to be "eating up" the other, and so Swift capitalizes on this figurative idea, making it literal in his satire.

Who is the protagonist in the book Monster by Walter Dean Myers?

The protagonist (main character) in Walter Dean Myer's short novel Monster is Steven Harmon. Steve is obviously a male character. His age is sixteen, and he is African American. The book opens with Steve Harmon in prison, and quickly moves to his court trial. He is on trial for a felony murder resulting from a robbery. The trial is hard on Harmon. He is constantly wondering if indeed he is the monster that the prosecution is trying to portray him as. On one hand, he thinks that he has to posture and be tough like some of the guys from his neighborhood, but on the other hand Harmon isn't at all like those guys. Violence definitely bothers Harmon, and that personality trait is supported by Mr. Sawicki's statement that Harmon is "talented, bright, and compassionate."

What is molluscum contagiosum?

Definition

Molluscum contagiosum is an infection of the skin. It is caused by the molluscum virus. In children, the most common areas affected are the
face, neck, arms, and hands. In adults, molluscum contagiosum is a
sexually
transmitted disease. In these cases the genitals and
surrounding skin are most commonly affected.

Causes

Contact with the virus causes this skin infection. This can occur with
skin to skin contact.

Risk Factors

Having skin-to-skin contact with an infected person is the main risk factor.
Other risk factors include indirect contact with an infected person through a
swimming pool or bath or by sharing towels or clothing, sexual contact with an
infected person, and having a weakened immune system (such as human immunodeficiency
virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome). Broken skin increases the risk for getting the
disease and causes more severe symptoms.

Symptoms

Skin lesions are the main symptom. A person who experiences a similar skin lesion should not assume it is caused by this condition. These lesions may be caused by other health conditions.

Molluscum contagiosum skin lesions usually are small, dome-shaped bumps with dimpling in center; are painless, but may be itchy or tender; first appear translucent, pearly, or flesh-colored and later may turn gray and drain; and have a white or waxy substance in the center of the lesion. Multiple lesions usually are in groups. Common sites in children are the face, trunk, arms, and legs; in adults, common sites are the genitals, abdomen, and inner thigh. The lesions can last from several weeks to several years.

Screening and Diagnosis

Diagnosis is usually made based on the lesions.
Sometimes a biopsy will be taken. The sample will be looked at under a
microscope. The examining doctor may refer the patient to a dermatologist, a
specialist who focuses on skin conditions.

Treatment and Therapy

Left untreated, molluscum contagiosum usually resolves within six months. If untreated in people with human immunodeficiency virus infection, the lesions usually persist and spread indefinitely. The doctor may recommend removal of the lesions to prevent spreading and to avoid infecting others.

Treatment options include surgical removal of the lesions, which can be removed
by cutting them off the surface of the skin. With chemical treatment, chemicals
are placed directly on the lesions to remove them. Common chemical treatments
include podophyllin, cantharidin, phenol, silver nitrate, trichloracetic acid, and
iodine. Other treatments include cryotherapy, which uses cold to freeze
the lesions off of the skin (liquid nitrogen may be used for this treatment), and
retinoid or imiquimod cream, separately or in combination.

Prevention and Outcomes

Molluscum contagiosum is contagious. To reduce the risk of exposure to the virus, one should avoid contact with an infected person (this includes not sharing towels, clothing, baths, and pools) and avoid sexual contact with an infected person. To reduce the risk of spreading the disease, one should not touch the lesions (nor scratch them) and should wash hands promptly if he or she contacts the lesions.

Bibliography

Dohil, M. A., et al. “The Epidemiology of Molluscum Contagiosum in Children.” Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 54, no. 1 (2006): 47-54.

Hanson, D., and D. G. Diven. “Molluscum Contagiosum.” Dermatology Online Journal 9, no. 2 (2003). Available at http://dermatology.cdlib.org/92/ reviews/molluscum/diven.html.

Theos, A. U., et al. “Effectiveness of Imiquimod Cream 5 Percent for Treating Childhood Molluscum Contagiosum in a Double-Blind, Randomized Pilot Trial.” Cutis 74, no. 2 (2004): 134-138, 141-142.

In George Bernard Shaw's play Arms and the Man, why is Sergius compared to Don Quixote?

To appreciate the significance of the comparison made in George Bernard Shaw’s antiwar play Arms and the Man of Major Sergius Saranoff to Miguel de Cervantes’ antihero from his classic of literature, Don Quixote, it helps to appreciate the personality of the Irish playwright. The protagonist of Cervantes’ work, of course, is the titular character, a deeply-troubled man whose pronounced tendencies towards chivalry invariably run up against the realities of a violent, cynical world. Don Quixote is delusional, and attempts repeatedly to attack, or tilt, at windmills, imagining them as fearsome giants against which he will prove his worth as a man. The phrase “tilting at windmills,” in fact, derives from this character’s unusual practice, and the word “quixotic,” which became a part of the English-language lexicon, similarly refers to the act of bravery against imaginary or, conversely, too-powerful adversaries.

That understood, what is the association of Cervantes’ work with Shaw’s play? Major Saranoff, Sergius, is off at war as Arms and the Man begins. He is not only a soldier, but an idolized figure in the Bulgarian army. Early in Shaw’s play, two of the main characters, Raina and her mother Catherine, are discussing the major’s military exploits during the ongoing war between Bulgaria and Serbia. Raina, in love with Sergius, ruminates on his bravery to the point of sheer idolatry:

RAINA. Our ideas of what Sergius would do—our patriotism—our heroic ideals. . .When I buckled on Sergius's sword he looked so noble: it was treason to think of disillusion or humiliation or failure.

Raina’s exuberant praise of her boyfriend and intended husband continues when the stranger, Captain Bluntschli, appears in the family’s home. This interloper is no mere deserter; he is a thoughtful cynic whose experiences in war have jaded him and left him a spokesman for Shaw’s antiwar point of view. Note, in the following exchange, how Raina reacts to this stranger’s description of the folly of leading the charge in battle:

MAN. . . .Well, it's a funny sight. It's like slinging a handful of peas against a window pane: first one comes; then two or three close behind him; and then all the rest in a lump.

RAINA Yes, first One!—the bravest of the brave!

MAN (prosaically). Hm! you should see the poor devil pulling at his horse.

RAINA. Why should he pull at his horse?

MAN (impatient of so stupid a question). It's running away with him, of course: do you suppose the fellow wants to get there before the others and be killed? . . .

RAINA. Ugh! But I don't believe the first man is a coward. I believe he is a hero!

MAN (goodhumoredly). That's what you'd have said if you'd seen the first man in the charge to-day.

RAINA (breathless). Ah, I knew it! Tell me—tell me about him.

MAN. He did it like an operatic tenor—a regular handsome fellow, with flashing eyes and lovely moustache, shouting a war-cry and charging like Don Quixote at the windmills. We nearly burst with laughter at him; but when the sergeant ran up as white as a sheet, and told us they'd sent us the wrong cartridges, and that we couldn't fire a shot for the next ten minutes . . . Of course, they just cut us to bits. And there was Don Quixote flourishing like a drum major, thinking he'd done the cleverest thing ever known, whereas he ought to be courtmartialled for it. Of all the fools ever let loose on a field of battle, that man must be the very maddest. He and his regiment simply committed suicide—only the pistol missed fire, that's all.

The “brave” soldier to whom Bluntschli is referring, of course, is Major Saranoff.  Bluntschli is comparing Sergius to Don Quixote, ascribing to this Bulgarian war hero the same absurdity with which one views Cervantes’ “hero.” Bluntschli, representing Shaw’s perspective, is subsumed with the folly of war. He has seen men die under ridiculous circumstances, and he has questioned the reasons for which he and other young men are sent to fight and die. The charge led by Sergius is militarily successful; it is highly questionable, the playwright suggests, as to whether the objective of the charge was worth the effort. Just as Don Quixote’s delusional attempts at chivalry and courage are all for not, so, Shaw would argue, was the efforts of Sergius.