Who is Hamlet?

Hamlet is the Prince of Denmark, son of the late King Hamlet and Queen Gertrude.  His mother, however, remarried shortly after his father's death, and his new step-father is actually his uncle (his father's brother), Claudius.  Hamlet is a student at the university in Wittenberg, and he is still very much in mourning over the loss of his father and the hasty remarriage of his mother.  He is very close friends with Horatio and, at the beginning of the play, the lover of Ophelia.  It is the ghost of Hamlet's dead father whose appearance so alarms the sentinels at the beginning of the play and initiates the action.  His father's ghost charges him to seek revenge on Claudius for murdering him with poison in the garden, and it is this instruction, to exact revenge on his father's murderer, that motivates Hamlet for the remainder of the play.

p→q; p→r; ¬q∨¬r; ∴¬p please prove using natural deduction.

1.           basic assumption

2.     `p -> r`      basic assumption            

3.  `not q vv not r`    basic assumption(goal:`not p` )

In order to proof this we will need to divide it into two mini proofs: 

Mini proof 1: 

4.  `not q`               (Assume `vv E`    to prove `p`)

5   `not p`               ( `-> E`   lines 1,4)` `

Mini proof 2: 

6.   `not r`                (Assume  `vv E`   to prove `p`)

7.  `not p`                 (`-> E` lines 2,6)

CONCLUSION: (now we can show the proof)

8. `not p`                        (`vv E`   lines3, 4-5, 6-7)

This is how we proof by natural deduction.

How did tanks become more sophisticated in World War II?

Tanks were used in World War I, but they were relatively unsophisticated and traveled at slow speeds, largely to support infantries. Tanks during World War II were also not only to support infantries but also as cavalry units and to provide artillery backup in battle. Tanks developed greater mobility so that they could break through enemy lines and provide additional offensive power. At the beginning of the war, the German armies used tanks in combination with infantry and air power, and their tanks began to also have radios for communication. By the middle of the war, most countries had tanks with two-way radios.

In addition, tanks started to have heavier armor and more powerful weapons. Turrets became common on tanks so that they could fire powerful artillery in a wide range of motion. When World War II broke out, countries such as England largely only had tanks armed with machine guns. During the war, countries developed tanks that were more powerfully armed; for example, the German Panther medium tank had a 75-mm gun that fired bullets at a rate of 3,070 feet per second (versus 1,260 feet per second for the earlier German tanks). The newer tanks were also heavier, and the Germans eventually developed a Tiger tank with 88-mm guns that, at 68 tons, was the heaviest tank in the war. The Russian JS tank had a 122-mm gun and weighed 46 tons. These heavy tanks were often used to destroy enemy tanks, and countries also developed anti-tank guns. Tanks were also used for a wide range of military tasks, including as command vehicles, as flame throwers, and as part of engineering corps. 

What is appetite loss? How does it affect cancer patients?

Related conditions:
Cachexia

Definition:
Loss of appetite in cancer patients, referred to by medical professionals
as anorexia, may result from either the cancer itself or the treatments used to
combat the disease. Cancer-related anorexia is associated with weight loss and has
been shown to correlate with a poorer outcome and a lower quality of life.

Risk factors: Those with cancer and undergoing chemotherapy
for cancer are at risk.

Etiology and the disease process: Because many cancer treatments
affect not only cancer cells but also healthy cells, several unwanted side effects
may result. For instance, chemotherapy may reduce the turnover of taste receptor
cells in the tongue, which may alter the flavor of food. Additional damage to
other cell types in the mouth may result in sores, gum disease, dry mouth,
and sore throat. Cells in the digestive tract may also be injured, resulting in
abnormal gut motility and difficulty swallowing. Together, these effects may
change the way food tastes and decrease the desire to eat.

Emotional side effects, such as fear and depression,
as well as psychological effects, such as the development of taste
aversions due to the nauseating side effects of chemotherapy,
can also contribute to the loss of appetite. Furthermore, many cancer patients
with anorexia report early satiety, meaning that they feel full after eating only
a small amount of food.

Biological causes for cancer-related anorexia also exist. Cytokines
released by tumor cells or produced by immune cells in response to cancer may
affect the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract to promote
appetite loss. Specifically, the central nervous system is responsible for
controlling food intake and energy homeostasis, while effects on the
gastrointestinal tract can influence feelings of fullness. Examples of cytokines
that may affect appetite include tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), C-reactive
protein, interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta), IL-6, and tumor-derived lipid mobilizing
factor (LMF). However, there is some conflicting data as to whether blood levels
of these cytokines correlate with, or are responsible for, the loss of
appetite.

Incidence: In general, approximately 25 percent of cancer patients report loss of appetite. The incidence can be as high as 90 percent for patients with advanced cancers. However, different types of cancers tend to have different rates of anorexia. For example, approximately 60 to 80 percent of patients with cancers of the lung, stomach, pancreas, or esophagus have significant weight loss caused, in part, by anorexia. However, loss of appetite is not as frequent in patients with breast or prostate cancer.

Treatment and therapy: Cancer-related anorexia may be managed by either changing eating habits or taking medication. There are several dietary suggestions for cancer patients who struggle with loss of appetite. Liquid or powdered meal replacements as well as juice, soups, and milk-based drinks or shakes may be used in place of solid food to provide nutrients. Eating several small meals or snacks instead of three large meals per day may also be more feasible for patients with cancer-related anorexia. Additionally, drinking a glass of wine or exercising regularly may also stimulate the appetite. However, patients should consult with their doctors before consuming alcohol or beginning an exercise regimen.

The pharmacological treatment of cancer-related anorexia can be broadly divided into three groups: appetite stimulants, anticatabolic agents, and anabolic agents.

Examples of appetite stimulants include progestational agents (such as megestrol
acetate and medroxyprogesterone), which can improve caloric intake.
Corticosteroids (such as prednisolone and
methylprednisolone) may improve appetite because of their inhibition of
prostaglandin metabolism and IL-1 signaling. Cyproheptadine, an antihistamine, is
also a serotonin antagonist, and its effects on this neurotransmitter in the brain
can also promote an increase in appetite. A more controversial appetite stimulant
is cannabis (marijuana), as it can stimulate CB1 receptors in the brain
to enhance appetite and can also reduce nausea and cancer pain.

Anticatabolic agents, which inhibit the production or activity of appetite-decreasing cytokines, are also important in combating cancer-related anorexia. Examples include thalidomide (a potent inhibitor of TNF-α production) and eicosapentaenoic acid (an inhibitor of adenylate cyclase activity and tumor-derived LMF activity).

Anabolic agents such as oxandrolone and fluoxymesterone have been studied as well, and they may build lean tissue mass by increasing muscle protein synthesis. The hormone androgen may also be useful in cancer patients (except for those with hormone-dependent tumors) as it can promote muscle growth and strength and may also induce the secretion of leptin, a hormone produced by adipose tissue to stimulate appetite.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: Generally appetite loss resolves
itself when its underlying cause is remedied. Although appetite loss can interfere
with the healing process, it does not usually increase mortality in patients with
early-stage cancers. However, cancer-related anorexia is often associated with
cachexia, a wasting syndrome characterized by not only the
loss of appetite but also weight loss, breakdown of muscle tissues, depletion of
reserves within fat (adipose) tissue, fatigue, and weakness. In advanced-stage
cancer, the cancer anorexia-cachexia syndrome is observed in about 80 percent of
patients and is one of the most frequent causes of death.

Behl, D., and A.
Jatoi. “Pharmacological Options for Advanced Cancer Patients with Loss of
Appetite and Weight.” Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy 8.8
(2007): 1085–90. Print.

Chi, Kwan-Hwa, et al. "MS-20, a
Chemotherapeutical Adjuvant, Reduces Chemo-Associated Fatigue and Appetite
Loss in Cancer Patients." Nutrition and Cancer 66.7 (2014):
1211–19. Print.

Cleeland, Charles S., Michael J. Fisch,
and Adrian J. Dunn, eds. Cancer Symptom Science: Measurement,
Mechanisms, and Management. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2011.
Print.

Ginn, Edward H., ed. Coping with
Cancer: Pain Control and Eating Suggestions. New York: Nova
Biomedical, 2014. Print.

Perboni, S., and A.
Inui. “Anorexia in Cancer: Role of Feeding-Regulatory Peptides.”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences 361.1471 (2006): 1281–89. Print.

Poole, K., and K.
Froggatt. “Loss of Weight and Loss of Appetite in Advanced Cancer: A Problem
for the Patient, the Carer, or the Health Professional?” Palliative
Medicine 16.6 (2002): 499–506. Print.

Rubin, H. “Cancer
Cachexia: Its Correlations and Causes.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100.9
(2003): 5384–89. Print.

Solheim, Tora S., et al. "Weight Loss,
Appetite Loss, and Food Intake in Cancer Patients with Cancer Cachexia:
Three Peas in a Pods?—Analysis from a Multicenter Cross-Sectional Study."
Acta Oncologica 53.4 (2014): 539–46. Print.

How would you describe the financial health of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital?

St. Jude Children's Research Hospital is unique in that it was founded on the principle that no child is denied care based on religion, race, or a family's ability to pay. Though it may seem like taking in children whose families cannot pay may lead to financial instability, St. Jude is a premier fundraising institution, which allows it to keep up on operational costs.

According to St. Jude's 2015 fiscal year financial statement, the hospital increased its year-over-year total in assets (3.9 billion in 2014; 4.1 billion in 2015), which includes cash on hand, contributions, and property and equipment.

In addition to receiving funds thanks to fundraising activities, St. Jude has been able to maintain its financial health thanks to an investment strategy that has proved successful (2.1 billion in unrestricted investments in 2014; 2.3 billion in 2015).

The hospital has also created a strong work environment. It employs nearly 4,000 people and is number 47 on Forbes' list of best midsize employers.

What is cyanosis?

Causes and Symptoms

Cyanosis, a dark blue discoloration of the skin
and nail beds, is a sign of a disorder, not a disease in itself, and it may have several causes. It is also not a symptom sensed by a patient but a physical finding. To appear, cyanosis requires a concentration in arterial blood of 4 to 5 grams per deciliter of reduced hemoglobin. Anemic patients may not show cyanosis even though their hemoglobin saturations are low. Its presence indicates one or more of the following: inadequate oxygenation of arterial blood (a decrease of oxygen saturation to 85 percent or less), the presence of a normal constituent (methemoglobin) in increased concentration, or the presence of an abnormal constituent (sulfhemoglobin).

Inadequate oxygenation of normally circulating blood. The obstruction of large airways (the tracheobronchial system) can occur from external compression or the aspiration of solid or semisolid materials (foodstuffs, particularly ground meat). Laryngospasm may be a factor. The aspiration of aqueous fluids, as in drowning in freshwater, can fill the alveoli and decrease or prevent the contact of inspired air with the blood in the pulmonary capillaries. Freshwater can pass rapidly into the blood and eventually free the alveoli for gas exchanges. Drowning in seawater is usually accompanied by marked laryngospasm. If the hypertonic seawater reaches the alveoli, then water will cross from the blood into the alveoli and produce even more fluid and froth in the lungs (pulmonary
edema).

The inhalation of certain toxic agents, available industrially or used in warfare, can damage the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries and produce pulmonary edema. Typical agents are chlorine and phosgene. Smoke inhalation is another possible cause of lung damage. Pulmonary edema from cardiac failure can occur as a result of increased pressure in the alveolar capillaries. Respiratory distress syndrome, or noncardiogenic pulmonary edema, occurs probably as the end result of a variety of initiators (shock, sepsis) culminating in the production of damaging free radicals.

Pharmacologically active agents such as heroin and morphine injected intravenously, as by drug abusers, can produce fulminating pulmonary edema extremely rapidly, possibly as the result of alpha-adrenergic discharge. Substances such as ethchlorvynol can also produce this condition if injected intravenously, although they may be innocuous if taken orally.

Pulmonary infections such as pneumococcal pneumonia can cause edema through the perfusion of alveoli that are filled with fluid, that is, nonventilated. This condition is essentially venous admixture, and it can occur when three or more lobes of the lungs are involved. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) can produce cyanosis because of destruction of lung tissue (emphysema) and because of obstruction to air movement. Oxygenation is incomplete, and cyanosis is a common feature of advanced disease.

Low oxygen concentration in ambient atmosphere occurs with ascent to high altitudes. In certain caves, oxygen may be displaced by carbon dioxide. Incorrect gas mixtures may be administered to patients under anesthesia or on artificial respiration. The oxygen of the ambient atmosphere may be decreased in closed environments such as submarines. Polycythemia (increased numbers of red blood cells per unit volume of blood) may occur as a result of chronic exposure to high altitudes or as a spontaneous problem (polycythemia vera). The oxygen content of the blood may be normal or high, but the unoxygenated portion may be increased so that a ruddy cyanosis may be present.

Admixture of venous and arterial blood flows.
Patent ductus arteriosus
is a heart defect that produces blue baby syndrome. It offers a classic example of the direct entry of venous blood into the arterial system, as the lungs are partially bypassed. Other cardiopulmonary abnormalities, such as right-to-left shunts, can also produce cyanosis.

Localized circulatory problems. Frostbite and Raynaud’s phenomenon are examples of localized occurrence of cyanosis. In these conditions, vascular changes limit blood flow, leading to congestion and unsaturation.

Increased concentrations of methemoglobin or sulfhemoglobin. Naturally occurring methemoglobin is present at about the 1 percent level in blood. From 0.5 to 3 percent of the total hemoglobin is oxidized each day and returned to deoxyhemoglobin through enzymatic reductase activity. In congenital forms of methemoglobinemia, cyanosis appears when the concentration of methemoglobin approaches 10 percent of the total (about l.4 grams per deciliter).

Acquired increased concentration can be caused by a variety of agents (such as sodium perchorate, Paraquat, nitroglycerine, and inhaled butyl and isobutyl nitrites) by oxidizing hemoglobin to methemoglobin through the formation of free radicals. Nitrates, absorbed by mouth, are transformed into nitrites in the gut and also produce methemoglobin. Sulfhemoglobin can also be formed and produces cyanosis at concentrations of 0.5 gram per deciliter.

Treatment and Therapy

Treatment is directed not to the cyanosis itself but to the underlying problem. Oxygen administration is crucial in many but not all cases.

For airway obstruction, the Heimlich maneuver may be lifesaving, as may an emergency tracheostomy. Drowning requires artificial respiration, positioning of the body so that drainage of fluid from the lungs is facilitated, and administration of oxygen, if available. Full cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) may be needed. Pulmonary edema from cardiac failure or respiratory distress syndrome calls into use a variety of approaches, but oxygen is almost always provided. Artificial respiration and oxygen are usually required in heroin, morphine, and ethchlorvynol pulmonary edema. COPD and emphysema are chronic, progressive disorders in which oxygen, bronchodilators, antibiotics, steroids, and surgical interventions (lung volume reduction) may be used. In methemoglobinemia, the congenital forms may not require any treatment. If the cyanosis is the result of exposure to nitrites and other potential oxidants, then methylene blue is usually effective.

Perspective and Prospects

Cyanosis has been recognized for centuries as a sign or indicator of an underlying problem. The focus of investigations has been on identifying these problems. The properties of the hemoglobins have been investigated by physiologists and hematologists, leading to an understanding of their structures and functions. Surgical correction of the vascular abnormalities of so-called blue babies by Alfred Blalock and Helen Taussig led to the development of the field of cardiovascular
surgery. Molecular biology has provided knowledge of the enzymatic and genetic factors involved in the development of methemoglobinemia.

Bibliography

A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia. "Cyanotic Heart Disease." MedlinePlus, November 21, 2011.

A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia. "Skin Discoloration—Bluish." MedlinePlus, May 25, 2011.

Dickerson, Richard E., and Irving Geis. Hemoglobin: Structure, Function, Evolution, and Pathology. Menlo Park, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings, 1983.

Heart Information Center. "Cyanosis." Texas Heart Institute, August 2012.

Icon Health. Cyanosis: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References. San Diego, Calif.: Author, 2004.

Nagel, Ronald L., ed. Hemoglobin Disorders: Molecular Methods and Protocols. Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press, 2003.

Weibel, Ewald R. The Pathway for Oxygen: Structure and Function in the Mammalian Respiratory System. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984.

What are the factors that influence Grete's behaviour towards Gregor?

At first, when Grete is kind to Gregor, she seems to be motivated by both her love for who he used to be as well as by her desire to be useful to her family. Her parents really only seem to value their children when they contribute, through their work, to the family's livelihood, and Grete hasn't been particularly useful—especially not in comparison to Gregor, who supports the entire family—until now. However, her love for him seems to compel her to try hard to find out what food he likes to eat, to arrange the furniture in a way that will please him, and so on.

After she gets a job and begins to work outside the home, Grete seems to feel a great deal less inclined to help out with Gregor at home; however, at the same time, she doesn't want anyone else to deal with him. Perhaps she has grown somewhat protective of her role as the primary provider of his care because she wants to go on being considered useful in this way. She no longer feels the same sense of pleasure in taking care of Gregor and seems to look on it now as an obligation. Once Gregor is no longer in a position to take care of his family, he loses his value, and Grete seems keenly aware of their role reversal: he has lost value while she has gained. Ultimately, then, it is only obligation that compels her to care what little she does for him in the end.

What is Paget disease of bone?

Related conditions:
Metabolic and endocrine bone diseases

Definition:

Paget disease of bone (osteitis deformans) is a bone disorder in which excessive bone resorption is followed by excessive bone formation. The primary disturbance is an exaggeration of activity by a cell called the osteoclast, which is responsible for removing bone in the remodeling process. Frenzied osteoclastic activity results in localized bone loss followed by a period of hectic bone formation. The osteoblast cell responds by regenerating new bone that is primitive (woven), disorganized, and weaker. The resultant effect of this cycle is a net gain in bone mass; however, the newly formed bone is structurally unsound. The disease process also results in extensive vascularity (increased number of blood vessels and blood flow) and increased fibrous connective tissue within the adjacent bone marrow space. Paget disease can produce a variety of skeletal, neuromuscular, and cardiovascular complications.

Risk factors: Although the exact cause of Paget disease remains unknown, being older than forty-five years and having a family history of the disease are the only known risk factors. Of patients with Paget disease, 15 to 30 percent have a family history. Family studies suggest that a person with a first-degree relative has a seven times higher risk of developing this condition. In families with early-onset or severe Paget disease, the risk is even greater.

Etiology and the disease process: Named after the nineteenth-century English surgeon Sir James Paget, Paget disease was first described in 1876 as an inflammatory condition that affects the normal biological processes of bone. The exact cause or mechanism of this disease process remains unknown. Scientists have discovered several genes that appear linked to this disorder. Other investigators believe Paget is related to a viral infection in the bone cells that may be present for many years before problems appear.

As living tissue, bone is engaged in a continual process of renewal; old bone is removed and replaced by new bone. This process of remodeling is disrupted in Paget disease. In the initial, or lytic, phase, old bone starts breaking down faster because of the erratic and accelerated activity of osteoclast cells. The body responds by generating new bone at a faster than normal rate. This mixed phase is devoted to osteoblastic cell activity. In the final osteosclerotic phase, the exhausted cells become quiescent. A mosaic pattern of bone is identifiable. The new bone is coarsely thickened but soft, porous, and lacking structural stability. These microscopic aspects make the bone vulnerable to deformation and to fracture under stress.

A variety of tumors and tumor-like conditions develop in the chaotic activity associated with pagetic bone. The most dreaded complication is the development of sarcomas (bone cancers), which occurs in 5 to 10 percent of patients with severe disease. The prognosis of patients who develop secondary sarcomas is exceedingly poor, but in the absence of malignant transformation, Paget disease usually follows a relatively benign course.

Incidence: Paget disease usually begins in the fifth decade of life, becomes progressively more common thereafter, and has a slight male predominance. There is a striking variation in prevalence both within certain countries and throughout the world. Paget disease is relatively common in England, France, Austria, regions of Germany, Australia, and New Zealand, affecting 5 to 11 percent of the populations in these countries. In the United States, Paget disease is estimated to occur in 1 to 3 percent of people over the age of forty-five. Paget disease is rare before the age of twenty; the estimated incidence among individuals older than eighty is 10 percent. In contrast, Paget disease is rare in the native populations of Scandinavia, China, Japan, and Africa.

Symptoms: Paget disease affects each person differently. Most people with Paget disease have no symptoms. Initial discovery may be the result of a screening X ray for other purposes. When symptoms do occur, they may be widespread but typically arise in the areas affected by the disease, which include bones, joints, and nerves.

The most common bone sites include the spine, pelvis, skull, femur (involved in up to 80 percent of cases), and tibia. Patients will complain of bone pain characterized as constant, aching, deep, and most severe at night. Skull involvement may produce enlargement of the head (frontal bossing). Deafness may result from disease of the temporal bone or ossicles (bones of the middle ear). Involvement at the base of the skull can lead to compression of the brain stem, resulting in symptoms of ataxia (difficulty walking), weakness, or respiratory compromise. Compression fractures of the spine can result in spinal cord injury and spinal deformity.

Hip and knee joints are commonly affected. The cartilage lining the joints near affected bones is damaged. This additional factor coupled with normal wear and tear leads to accelerated osteoarthritis, which may cause joint pain, swelling, and stiffness.

Enlarged bones can compress the spinal cord or the nerves exiting from the brain or spinal cord. Pain resulting from nerve compression is often more severe than bone pain. The location of the pain caused by nerve compression depends on the nerve that is affected. If lumbar nerves from the spine are compromised, this leads to radiating pain from the lower back and into the legs (sciatica). Nerve compression can result in limb weakness, pain, or paralysis. Nerve compression has been implicated in hearing and vision loss along with facial weakness and numbness.

Screening and diagnosis: Diagnosis depends on the following tests:

• Blood test: Specifically, an alkaline phosphatase test. Alkaline phosphatase is a chemical substance produced by bone cells that are responsible for forming new bone, and its serum level is elevated in Paget disease.





• X ray: The first indication of Paget disease usually is an abnormality found on an X ray. X-ray images delineate areas of bone reabsorption, enlargement of bones, and bone deformities.





• Bone scan: In some cases, bone scans can pick up Paget disease before it is seen on an X ray. In a bone scan, radioactive tracers are injected into the body. The tracers are preferentially taken up by areas of the bone that are metabolically active. Areas of pagetoid bone are seen as darker than areas of normal bone.





• Bone biopsy: Biopsy of the bone provides definitive evidence of the disease. Slides of the sectioned tissue show the classic mosaic pattern of bone. Biopsy can also be useful in staging the disease process.

Treatment and therapy: Asymptomatic patients may not need treatment. Treatment is recommended when the disease is active (indicated by elevated serum levels of alkaline phosphatase). Treatment can help alleviate pain and may halt the damage done to the bones. In many cases, treatment can cause a remission of the disease although not a cure. Medications, surgery, and self-care remain the essential elements in most treatment regimens.

Drug therapy incorporates the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications, analgesics, and muscle relaxants that lessen pain and discomfort but do not alter the natural course of the disease. The two major pharmaceuticals employed are calcitonin (a hormone that inhibits osteoclast activity and affects extent of bone resorption, provides relief of acute symptom, and lowers alkaline phosphatase levels) and the bisphosphonates, which are the most effective agents in reducing bone resorption.

Surgery, in rare cases, may be required to stabilize a fracture or to replace a damaged joint. If Paget disease affects the spine or skull, decompressive surgery (removal of excess bone) is needed to reduce the pressure on the nerves, thereby restoring normal neurologic function.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: In most cases, Paget disease progresses slowly. The condition can be managed effectively in nearly all people and is rarely fatal. A nutritional diet, regular exercise, and maintaining a healthy weight are important aspects of any treatment protocol. Certain individuals may require a corset or brace to relieve back pain and provide support. If symptoms become severe, the use of analgesics and muscle relaxants is recommended. Medical supervision and examination are necessary since major complications of this disease can include fractures, osteoarthritis, heart failure, and cancer.

Kumar, V., A. Abbas, N. Fausto, and R. Mitchels, eds. Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2007. Print.

McDermott, Michael T. Endocrine Secrets. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2013. Print.

Rosen, Clifford J., R. Bouillon, Juliet Compston, and Vicki Rosen. Primer on the Metabolic Bone Diseases and Disorders of Mineral Metabolism. Hoboken: Wiley, 2013. Print.

Schwamm, H. A., and C. L. Millward. Histologic Differential Diagnosis of Skeletal Lesions. New York: Igaku-Shoin, 1996. Print.

Singer, F. “Paget’s Disease of the Bone.” In Endocrinology, edited by L. J. DeGroot. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1995. Print.

Waldman, Steven D. Atlas of Uncommon Pain Syndromes. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunder, 2014. Print.

What are the main parts of the computer?

The main parts of the computer are a display unit or monitor, system unit, input devices (keyboard and mouse) and peripheral devices (such as speakers, printer, etc.). 

The system unit is the costliest component of the entire computer system. This unit consists of the central processing unit (CPU), hard drive, RAM, etc. The system unit also houses USB slots, CD drive, etc. One can think of the CPU as the brain of the computer. This is where the main operation or computing really takes place. CPU carries out all the processing and controls all the other devices.

The display unit is the screen on which we see the information. It is also known as the monitor. 

The keyboard and mouse are used to interact with the system by feeding in the information. A printer is used for printing out desired information. A speaker is used for playing the sound.

Hope this helps.

In the book The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian, Junior relates Oscar's death as an example of the worst thing about being poor. What...

Sherman Alexie's book The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian tells the story of Junior, who has grown up on the Spokane Reservation. Junior is frustrated by the systemic poverty his family experiences and the lack of opportunities available on the Reservation. He decides to go to a "white school" in another town, but he doesn't fit in there because he's "Indian," and now he doesn't fit in at home because he goes to a white school.

Junior struggles with the fact that his family and his people are trapped in a cycle of poverty. When his dog, Oscar, becomes sick, Junior's family can't afford to take him to the vet. Junior says that the worst thing about being poor is not being able to help the ones you love. People who live in poverty cannot afford many of the things that constitute a good quality of life—healthcare, education, and sometimes even proper nutrition or housing.

I think that Junior wishes he could ease the suffering he sees around him on the Reservation. Unfortunately, much of the suffering is due to the oppression of his culture, including the economic upheaval and erasure of indigenous ways of life. Money could certainly fix a lot of the problems Junior sees, but the Spokane people don't have the money to make things better, and the government can't or wont give them money to make it better because the Reservation is independent.

Junior remarks that "a bullet only costs two cents; anybody can afford that." What he's really saying here is that the only possible way he knows to escape the poverty his family experiences is through death. Junior's words and actions say two different things, though, and by attending a white school off of the Reservation and taking the challenge to join the basketball team, he is chasing new opportunities for himself and his loved ones.

What is sugar addiction?

Causes

Just as the search for explanations of addiction to alcohol and other drugs has been complicated by the nature-nurture debate, so too have been the controversies over sugar addiction. Some medical researchers and physicians believe that sugar addiction might be genetic—that is, that the biological nature of certain humans, specifically the information programmed into their deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), can explain why some people become addicted to sugar, in a way similar to how others become addicted to substances such as alcohol, nicotine, or heroin.

Other researchers have traced the pleasurable physiological state (popularly known as a sugar high) induced by an intake of sugar to the activation of certain receptors in the brain. Sugar is said to affect the same neurotransmitters in the brain associated with the pleasure produced by such substances as nicotine in cigarette smoke.

Those who emphasize the cultural rather than the genetic causes of physiological addiction to sugar point out that refined sugar (or sucrose, largely derived from sugar cane and sugar beets) has been a relatively recent addition to the human diet. Throughout most of the evolution of Homo sapiens and the early history of civilized humans, the dietary need for glucose was satisfied by the ingestion of fruits, vegetables, and fats, which could be metabolized into glucose as needed.

Even after techniques were discovered that allowed sugar to be extracted from plants, most humans were unable to use this sugar because of its expense. Sugar did not become an inexpensive commodity until the eighteenth century, when doctors began to discover some of its negative effects on the human body. For some historians, the origin of sugar addiction can be traced to this period, when laborers could be inexpensively fed with sweetened foods and drinks rather than with costly meats, fruits, and vegetables.

While there has in the past been some debate as to whether sugar addiction constitutes a genuine physiological dependence, recent scientific research has largely put this debate to rest. Consumption of sugar has been shown to cause overproduction of the delta FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homolog B (ΔFosB) protein, which plays a crucial role in the establishment of both drug and behavioral addictions by inducing neuroplasticity in the brain's reward system. In addition, the rewards and subsequent cravings induced by sugar consumption were found to be of comparable magnitude to those induced by addictive drugs such as cocaine; in fact, according to a 2013 review of research into sugar addiction, the sugar reward can be even more attractive than the cocaine reward in laboratory animals and has been shown to have a more robust underlying structure.

Contemporary analysts now believe that sugar addiction has both genetic and cultural causes. However, because of the uniqueness of every person’s biochemistry, it is difficult if not impossible to precisely divide causality for this relatively recent medical phenomenon into its biological and environmental sources.

Risk Factors

Scientists have discovered a number of medical conditions that predispose a person to sugar addiction. For example, a weak adrenal gland results in an insufficient quantity of glucocorticoid hormones to properly regulate glucose levels in the blood, leading to an intense craving for sugar. Furthermore, persons with a penchant for overeating are often susceptible to sugar addiction.

Cultural factors also can pose risks. For instance, in many advanced societies, the processed food industries add massive amounts of refined sugar to numerous products, thus allowing for large numbers of suitably predisposed persons to become sugar addicts.

Symptoms

A common symptom of sugar addiction is the overpowering urge, several times a day, to consume something sweet. If afflicted persons are unable to satisfy these urges, they often feel weak, apathetic, and dizzy. These symptoms may be relieved by the ingestion of sugar-containing foods and sweetened beverages, but continued dependence on sugar builds a tolerance, with increased consumption needed to relieve symptoms and reexperience the pleasurable feelings that sugar consumption initially created.

With the removal of sugar from the addict’s diet, withdrawal symptoms often occur, including tremors of the extremities, painful headaches, and digestive difficulties such as nausea. Psychological symptoms include irritability, depression, and drastic mood changes.

Researchers have noted numerous long-term health problems associated with sugar addiction, including such well-known consequences as obesity and dental decay. The American Diabetes Association regards the overconsumption of sugar as a major cause of degenerative diseases in the United States, including diabetes, heart disease, and cancer. Sugar also has a negative effect on the body’s immune system by depleting white blood cells, thus reducing this system’s ability to fight infectious agents.

Screening and Diagnosis

Screening for sugar addiction has not been a part of most routine physical examinations, with the exception of physical exams of the obese and of persons showing clear symptoms. Those who believe that sugar addiction is endemic to Western society argue that this neglect to screen for the addiction imperils the health of many people.

The lack of monitoring for sugar addiction has led to numerous books on the disorder, many of which contain guidelines for self-diagnosis. However, self-diagnoses can be inaccurate, even dangerous. Blood tests exist to monitor symptoms before and after the ingestion of sugar, and these tests can provide reliable evidence leading to a diagnosis of sugar addiction.

Treatment and Therapy

According to some advocates, the world is facing a crisis centered on sugar addiction, in large part because treatment of sugar addiction is hampered by a number of cultural barriers. Sugar has become “a legalized recreational drug” that is “socially acceptable to consume.” Sugar addiction is considered an acceptable addiction, one wholly separate from other addictions.

The treatment of sugar addicts is also hindered by the denial of their dependence in a manner reminiscent of classic drug addicts. Also, similar to another addictive product—tobacco—countries frequently subsidize sugar production because of its importance to their economies, and it is common for sugar and its presence in numerous foods and drinks to receive much more legal immunity than tobacco.

Therapy for sugar addiction can be a long and difficult process. Sugar addicts should not expect their sugar cravings to vanish in a few weeks or months. Most physicians and nutritionists begin treatment with diet modification. After tests, doctors generally attempt to stabilize blood sugar levels by getting their sugar-addicted patients to eat modest meals rich in protein. A nutritious breakfast is especially important, as is the elimination of sugar and artificial sweeteners from all meals and snacks.

Some doctors insist on treating sugar addiction the way they treat alcohol and other drug addictions—that is, by insisting their patients avoid all refined sugars and sugar-containing foods and drinks from their diet. This can be daunting because so many processed foods contain fructose, dextrose, maltose, and other sugary additives such as corn syrup. Some nutritionists even suggest a drastic reduction in the consumption of fresh fruits and fruit juices, which contain sugar. Others allow some fruit in the diet during the transition to a totally sugar-free diet.

Doctors also can prescribe medicines that may help reduce the craving for sugar, and nutritionists may advise recovering sugar addicts to take amino acids, such as glutamine and tyrosine, to help reduce cravings. Others have found that chromium supplements help balance blood sugar.

Orthomolecular physicians believe that good health can be achieved by balancing substances normally present in the body or by adding essential vitamins and minerals to the diet. These practitioners tend to agree with believers in sugar addiction that this sweet substance is alien to the body and poses a danger to health. For orthomolecular physicians, the combination of megavitamin therapy with the elimination of sugars and other processed foods that are incompatible with the body’s normal and natural array of molecules is optimum for health.

Other therapies add behavioral modifications for the treatment of sugar addiction. These therapies include exercise, especially relaxed walking, and eight hours of sleep every night. For serious cases, some professionals recommend psychotherapy, because certain patients become addicted to sugar to assuage feelings of loneliness or self-hatred. Therapists often try to discover why patients crave sugar; oftentimes, this craving is caused by past trauma.

With increasing awareness of sugar addiction, many treatment options have become available. Professionals now promote their services in treating this disorder. Treatment centers that include group therapy for sugar addiction also are available.

Prevention

Curbing sugar addiction involves both the individual and society. Even those skeptical of this addiction agree that most persons consume far too much sugar and that this overconsumption contributes to many health problems. Evolution has not prepared the human body to handle an average intake of 150 to 300 pounds of sugar each year. Several states in the United States have failed in their attempts to put a tax on sugary soft drinks. In concept, the prevention of sugar addiction is simple: drastically reduce sugar consumption. In reality, though, individuals and societies rarely manage to accomplish this.

Bibliography

Ahmed, Serge H., Karine Guillem, and Youna Vandaele. "Sugar Addiction: Pushing the Drug-Sugar Analogy to the Limit." Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 16.4 (2013): 434–39. Print.

Appleton, Nancy, and G. N. Jacobs. Suicide by Sugar: A Startling Look at Our #1 National Addiction. Garden City Park: Square One, 2009. Print.

Avena, Nicole M., Pedro Rada, and Bartley G. Hoebel. “Evidence for Sugar Addiction: Behavioral and Neurochemical Effects of Intermittent, Excessive Sugar Intake.” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 32.1 (2008): 20–39. Print.

Bennett, Connie, and Stephen T. Sinatra. Sugar Shock! How Sweets and Simple Carbs Can Derail Your Life—and How You Can Get Back on Track. New York: Berkley, 2007. Print.

Macinnis, Peter. Bittersweet: The Story of Sugar. Crows Nest: Allen, 2002. Print.

Mintz, Sidney W. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. New York: Viking, 1985. Print.

Olsen, Christopher M. "Natural Rewards, Neuroplasticity, and Non-drug Addictions." Neuropharmacology 61.7 (2011): 1109–22. Print.

Yudkin, John. Pure, White, and Deadly: How Sugar Is Killing Us and What We Can Do to Stop It. Rev. ed. 1986. New York: Penguin, 2013. Print.

What does Clarisse say people talk about?

Clarisse is a seventeen-year-old girl who curiously shows up along Montag's walk home one night after work. She asks him many introspective questions that "normal" people wouldn't think of; such as, "Are you happy?" (10) or "Do you ever read any of the books you burn?" (8). She even tells him that she is not afraid of him because he is a fireman. He asks her why she would be afraid of him and she says, "So many people are. . . But you're just a man after all. . ." (7).

Montag continues to talk with this girl multiple times. He asks about her life and why she's not in school. She tells him that she goes to therapy because she is "anti-social." She also says that she listens to people at soda fountains and "People don't talk about anything" (31). What Clarisse means is that people don't talk about anything important. They discuss things rather than ideas. For example, she says they will talk about cars, clothes or swimming pools, "But they all say the same things and nobody says anything different from anyone else" (31).

Clarisse is significant because she gets Montag thinking about his daily life, his home, his wife, people's behaviors, and the quality of life as a whole. By realizing that "people don't talk about anything," Montag later says to Faber the following:

"Nobody listens any more. I can't talk to the walls because they're yelling at me. I can't talk to my wife; she listens to the walls. I just want someone to hear what I have to say. And maybe if I talk long enough, It'll make sense" (82).

What is reiki?

Overview

The Japanese word reiki can be translated as “life-force energy.” The term refers to a form of spiritual healing that involves holding one’s hands above another’s body. Many people have taken training in Reiki, and the service is provided in a variety of settings. However, there is no scientific foundation in support of Reiki’s effectiveness for any purpose.

History of Reiki. There are two principal stories regarding the origin of Reiki. In both versions, the method was invented in Japan by Mikao Usui. Many Reiki practitioners in the United States believe that Usui was a Christian monk who invented the technique in the mid-nineteenth century. However, according to the more traditional Japanese schools of Reiki, Usui was a member of a Japanese spiritual organization called Rei Jyutsu Ka, and he developed the technique around 1915. (The story that he was a Christian may have been invented to facilitate the acceptance of Reiki in the West.) Both versions of Reiki’s history agree that Usui based his technique on methods and philosophies drawn from numerous traditional Asian healing methods.

After Usui’s death, various forms of Reiki continued to be taught by his students. One of these students, Chujiro Hayashi, systematized Reiki into three levels and added many hand movements to the technique. In turn, one of Hayashi’s students, Hawayo Takata, brought Reiki to the United States.

In the early 1980s, Takata’s granddaughter, Phyllis Furumoto, took on the mantle of Hayashi and Takata’s line of Reiki and popularized it widely in the West. However, many other forms of Reiki continue to exist, descending through different lineages of teachers. There are considerable differences between the various approaches, and certain groups strongly challenge the validity of others.

What is Reiki? Most types of Asian medicine make use of the concept of qi, a form of vital energy that flows through the body. Free-flowing, abundant qi is said to create health, while stagnant or deficient qi is thought to lead to illness. Reiki practitioners believe that they can improve this energy by holding their hands in certain positions over parts of a person’s body; advanced practitioners believe they can produce this effect from a distance. The net result, according to the theory, is accelerated healing and increased wellness.

In many ways, Reiki resembles therapeutic touch, except that the instructions given to its practitioners are more specific. A certified practitioner of Reiki has spent time learning specified hand movements and positions and has also undergone an “attunement” to an already-certified Reiki practitioner. This chain of attunements goes back to Usui, the method’s founder.

In its most popular Western form, Reiki is learned in three stages. The first stage involves an attunement that permits physical healing. The second stage grants the ability to carry out healing over a distance. The third degree of training allows the practitioner to perform healing on a spiritual level and to give attunements to students. Generally, each level is obtained by paying a fee and completing a weekend course.

Uses and Applications

Reiki is promoted as a treatment that can accelerate physical, emotional, or spiritual healing in every conceivable situation. It is used as a support for conventional medical care, rather than as a replacement for it.

Scientific Evidence

The only truly meaningful way to determine whether a medical therapy works is to perform a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. For hands-on therapies such as Reiki, however, a truly double-blind study is not possible; the Reiki practitioner will inevitably know whether he or she is administering real Reiki rather than fake Reiki. The best that can be hoped for is a single-blind study in which participants do not know whether they received real or fake Reiki and in which the medical outcome is evaluated by an observer who also does not know who is or is not receiving real Reiki and is, therefore, “blinded.”

In a 2008 review of nine randomized-controlled trials on the effectiveness of Reiki for various purposes, researchers stated that no firm conclusions could be drawn from any of these studies. In a subsequent controlled trial, one hundred persons with fibromyalgia received Reiki or direct-touch therapy from either a true Reiki master or an actor posing as a Reiki master. There was no difference in symptom improvement between the two groups. In one review of three Reiki studies, researchers found that more experienced practitioners appeared to have a greater effect on pain reduction. This observation could not be explained.

A simpler study design compares Reiki to no treatment. However, studies of this type cannot provide reliable evidence about the efficacy of a treatment: If a benefit is seen, there is no way to determine whether it was caused by Reiki specifically or just by attention generally. (Attention alone will almost always produce some reported benefit.)

Finally, there are many case reports in which people are given Reiki and then seem to improve. Such reports do not mean anything scientifically; numerous people receiving placebo in placebo-controlled studies also seem to improve. Thus, such reports cannot say anything about whether Reiki itself offers any benefit.

In one study, female nursing students received either real Reiki or a placebo form of the treatment called mimic Reiki. Before-and-after tests failed to find any improvement in general well-being attributable to Reiki treatment.

In another study, researchers evaluated the effectiveness of Reiki (with a related technique called LeShan) in twenty-one people undergoing oral surgery for impacted wisdom teeth. Each participant received two surgeries, one with Reiki and the other without (in random order). People reported less pain when they received Reiki than when they received no treatment; however, because of the lack of a fake treatment group, the results mean little.

Choosing a Practitioner

There are several competing organizations that issue certifications to Reiki practitioners. These include the Reiki Alliance, the Reiki Foundation, and the Awareness Institute.

Safety Issues

There are no known or proposed safety risks with Reiki unless a person chooses to use Reiki instead of, rather than as a support to, standard medical care.

Bibliography

Assefi, N., et al. “Reiki for the Treatment of Fibromyalgia.” Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 14 (2008): 1115-1122.

Lee, M. S., M. H. Pittler, and E. Ernst. “Effects of Reiki in Clinical Practice.” International Journal of Clinical Practice 62 (2008): 947-954.

Richeson, N. E., et al. “Effects of Reiki on Anxiety, Depression, Pain, and Physiological Factors in Community-Dwelling Older Adults.” Research in Gerentological Nursing 3 (2010): 187-199.

So, P. S., Y. Jiang, and Y. Qin. “Touch Therapies for Pain Relief in Adults.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2008): CD006535. Available through EBSCO DynaMed Systematic Literature Surveillance at http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed.

Thornton, L. C. “A Study of Reiki, an Energy Field Treatment, Using Rogers’ Science.” Rogerian Nursing Science News 8 (1996): 14-15.

Describe the four factors of production.

There are four factors of production. These factors are land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. Land refers to the place where buildings are constructed and where resources can be found. Labor refers to those individuals who are doing the work. Capital refers to the money that is needed to invest in something or to start a new business. Capital includes the machines needed to run a business as well as the buildings themselves. Capital is needed for an economy to grow. Finally, the last factor of production is entrepreneurship. People have to develop ideas and be willing to take risks. Without this spirit of entrepreneurship, there would be few new ideas and few improvements in ways of doing business. Each factor of production is necessary for an economy to grow, to develop, and to hopefully prosper.

What are the causes and effects of World War II?

There are many causes and effects of World War II. One cause was the aggressive actions of Germany, Japan, and Italy were ignored. When Japan invaded Manchuria and China, little was done to deal with these invasions. The same was true when Germany and Italy took land or violated the terms of the Versailles Treaty.

Another cause of World War II was the anger the harsh Versailles Treaty created. Germany was angry with the $33 billion in reparations they had to pay to the Allies. Germany also resented having to accept responsibility for World War I. Adolf Hitler played upon this anger, promising to restore German pride in the future. Italy felt they weren’t given enough land from the terms of the Versailles Treaty.

The Great Depression played a role in the start of World War II. Some countries turned to authoritarian leaders during the Great Depression. These leaders promised the people a return to the glory days of the past. Mussolini and Hitler both promised the people of their countries a better life economically and a restoring of pride in their countries. Countries like the United States, Great Britain, and France were so preoccupied with dealing with the effects of the Great Depression that they weren’t able to pay close attention to what was happening in Germany, Japan, and Italy.

As a result of World War II, several things changed. One thing that changed was that we now entered the atomic age. When the atomic bombs were dropped on Japan, a new military element and threat were introduced to the world. People now lived in fear of possible nuclear attack. Another change was the development of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. There would be conflicts and confrontations between these two countries over the next 45 years as a result of the Cold War.

A final effect of World War II was that countries with democratic governments are able to respond to serious crises. We proved that it isn’t necessary to turn to a dictator when times are bad. Our response to the threat presented by World War II showed that democratic government does work.

Given the controversies surrounding commerce and New Age spirituality, modern yoga, and dispensational premillennialism, is the suggestion that...

You question asks about religious controversy and its potential causes. Considering the examples you've cited, I'd say that religious controversy is tied mostly to people's personal identities—that is, to their idea of themselves. People want a certain self-concept, and so they seek after a certain type of experience.

If we look at these examples, it's not so much tension with others that is the driving force of controversy. Rather, it's that that people want to assert and reinforce a particular kind of identity for themselves. A person wants to be "spiritual," for example. They want to be countercultural, not mainstream, unique. And so, they want experiences that are "spiritual," not mainstream, unique. The problems is that when a person's sought-after "spiritual" experience becomes commodified, that experience naturally become more accessible to others and more mainstream. Thus that experience becomes less unique, less countercultural. And, for many people, this shift into the commercial mainstream changes the very nature of the experience itself. It may diminish the experience or make it feel less authentic. Let's look at two examples you've raised: modern yoga, and premillennialism. 

Modern yoga as practiced in the Western world is highly commoditized. You can pay for classes, buy trendy yoga gear, find yoga apps on your phone, etc. Yet, for many, the appeal of yoga is its ability to take us away from all that. Many folks come to practices like yoga to "get away" from the world of work and commerce, to find something more meaningful in themselves. Indeed, this venture is rooted in the origins of yoga itself. Historically, yogis renounced the world. Many would beg for alms and subsist off very little. Some practitioners strongly identify with this particular identity of the yogi. For these practitioners, yoga may be more than simply a practice. It may be an entire self-concept, a way of viewing one's self.

These individuals may claim that to turn a profit from the practice of yoga is to spiritually "sell out." It's important to note that this criticism arises from a desire to protect a particular identity. Paying money for classes or charging money as teacher doesn't fit the particular identity that some people have of themselves, or of what a yogi should be. 

Let's examine premillennialism. Premillennialism also contains within it a kind of countercultural identity type. Communities that emphasize "end of days" narratives tend to be very insular, and often have cult-like characteristics. People who hold the belief that the end of days is near generally see themselves as going against the grain of society. They may believe that warning mankind of its impending doom is a special duty; a religious burden they were uniquely called to. It's an identity of being special, of having access to special knowledge, and of belonging to an elect few.

Sometimes this type of thinking is commoditized for profit (for example, Christian fiction depicting the end-times, or millennialist calendars with "end of days" countdowns). When such commodities are bought and sold in the marketplace, these ideas become more accessible and widely known in the mainstream. This makes it harder for people to maintain a self-concept that they have special knowledge. So, again, it's an example where the effect of commerce makes it difficult for individuals to maintain a particular self-concept. This can be a threat to their personal identity. 

In these two examples, yoga and premillennial dispensationalism, it seems to me that questions of identity and self-concept drive much of the controversy about religion, spiritual practice, and commerce. Tensions between groups or individuals may be a factor, but in my judgment the more salient factors are entirely psychological, and not inter-personal. 

If all savers put their money in holes in the ground, how would people manage to exchange goods? Could an industrial economy function well under...

If everyone put their money into holes in the ground, we would eventually run out of cash.  This would be a disaster for the economy. 

One of the most important functions of money is to serve as a medium of exchange.  That is, we can give people money, and they will give us goods or services in return. This makes things easier because we can just carry money around with us and exchange it for things that we need.

Now imagine that we no longer have money. Now how do we get things that we want? Imagine that I want to buy a haircut. If I cannot give the barber money, I have to give them something that they want.  I have to find out what the barber wants, try to get it, and bring it to the barber so he or she will cut my hair.  This makes it very hard to buy and sell things.

An industrial economy could never function well in these conditions.  It would be too hard to buy and sell things.  How would a company be able to buy machines?  How would people be able to buy stock in companies?  All of these things would be impossible in an economy without money. Money makes industrial economies (and all large economies) possible.

What steps do Prince Prospero's friends take to make themselves safe from the Red Death?

First, when Prince Prospero summons these healthy and carefree friends to his presence, they go with him to one of his most geographically isolated abbeys in order to escape from the disease and those victims of it.  This abbey, designed by the prince, is surrounded by strong stone walls and iron gates, and it seems to be impenetrable.  In addition, the guests bring with them hammers and furnaces so that they can weld all the bolts and further fortify the edifice.  These people are determined to make it impossible either to come or to go, and so they also stock the abbey with ample provisions -- food, drink, entertainment -- to last quite a long time.  In these ways, the narrator tells us, the "courtiers might bid defiance to contagion."  Having taken all these precautions, they feel very secure that they are, indeed, safe from the Red Death.

What are some things to note when writing a war story?

The key to writing a good war story is that it should focus on internal changes within the protagonist, rather than just the external brutality of war. In other words, your story needs to be about a person, not just a battle.

Consider some famous war movies like Forrest Gump, Enemy at the Gates, or American Sniper. Each of these movies centers around a person's life, not just the violence that happens during war. We watch the protagonist go through change. 

Here are some general tips as you begin: 

• Choose what war your story will be set in. Don't just pick a random one and don't underestimate the differences between the wars that you pick. The kind of story you would tell about the Vietnam War is going to be very different than the kind of story you would tell about WWII or the War of 1812. The setting, the characters, the stakes, and the language are all going to change based on what war you pick. 


• Decide what your character wants. The best dramatic writing occurs when a character is actively trying to achieve something. This could be an external goal like "saving those villagers." Or it could be something internal and harder to judge like "I want to be my own person." 


• When you start describing what is happening around your protagonist (the setting, the action, etc.) it is usually more effective to describe your protagonist’s reaction to something, rather than just describing the thing itself. If your protagonist’s best friend is being killed, don’t just describe the murder. Describe the protagonist watching the murder. (If you've ever seen the horror movie Sinister, there are some great examples of this idea.) 


• Finally, remember to have profluence. It’s sometimes easy in war stories to get caught up in bloody descriptions or battles. But remember that audiences can get bored even with war scenes. We want the story to keep moving forward.

What formula do I use when finding the mass and weight of air?

Since air is a gas, its weight will depend upon the volume and pressure in which it is contained.

The simplest approach would be to use the ideal gas law, which relates pressure P and volume V to temperature T and the number of moles of gas n, with a constant of proportionality called R:

P V = n R T

We need some figures for pressure and volume. If we're interested in the density of air at the surface, we can use an arbitrary volume (say 1 cubic meter) and set the pressure equal to atmospheric pressure, which is about 100 kilopascals.

You're given the temperature, but you didn't mention it; so I'm going to solve it for 27 C (80 F) and you can do the same for whatever you actually have.

Remember that T in this equation must be given in kelvin, so 27 C is 300 K. The constant R is 8.3 J/K/mol.

P V = n R T

(10^5 Pa) (1 m) = n (8.3 J/K/mol) (300 K)

This will tell us how many moles we've got in each cubic meter:

n = (10^5)(1)/(8.3)/(300) = 4.00 mol

Then to get mass, we need the molar mass.

Air is a mixture of gases, but the really important ones are 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen and 1% argon. A weighted average of these molar masses will give us the effective molar mass of air.

The molar mass of nitrogen is 14 g/mol, so N2 (nitrogen gas) is 28 g/mol.
The molar mass of oxygen is 16 g/mol, so O2 (oxygen gas) is 32 g/mol.
The molar mass of argon is 40 g/mol, and argon is a monatomic gas.

Weighted average of these is:

(0.78)(28) + (0.21)(32) + (0.01)(40)
21.84 + 6.72 + 0.40 = 28.96 g/mol

Multiply this by the 4.00 mol of gas we have:
(28.96 g/mol)(4.00 mol/m^3) = 116 g/m^3 = 0.116 kg/m^3

That at least is what we get for a temperature of 27 C; if we use a different temperature, the density we get will be different, but the process of calculation will be the same.

How is eating a chemical change?

The process of digestion involves a series of chemical and physical changes to food substances. When we put food into our mouths and chew it, it is broken down into smaller pieces for easier digestion by the stomach. This is a physical change. But what happens in the mouth isn't just a physical change--the introduction of saliva triggers an enzymatic breakdown of foods. Sometimes, we can taste this chemical reaction as it occurs. When starchy foods are broken down by saliva and the action of chewing, they can take on a sweeter flavor. Try chewing on a plain cracker for as long as you can, and you may notice this sweet chemical change.

After food passes into the stomach, acids begin to break down the chewed-up mush even more. The actions of the upper digestive tract (including the mouth, esophagus, and stomach) work to break down foods as much as possible so that the nutrients within can be more readily absorbed by the lower digestive system. 

In the small intestine, all of the nutrients in the now-soupy mixture of foods are beginning to be absorbed by the body. Secretions like bile can help further break down fatty substances, which is another chemical change. As this mush passes through the small intestine, much of the nutrients and liquid are absorbed through intestinal villi and put to work in the blood stream. From the large intestine onward, the changes are mostly physical, as more liquid is removed from the stool before it exits the body.

What is the moral of The Hunger Games?

The moral is that you should stand up for what you believe in no matter what your circumstances are. 

Katniss is powerless.  She lives in a dystopian society where her district, District 12, is on the lowest rung of the power ladder.  In her very poor district, she is the poorest of the poor. Her father died when she was younger and her mother never recovered, which leaves Katniss as the family’s main breadwinner.  She has to take care of herself, her mother, and her little sister, Prim. 

Katniss takes care of her family mostly through illegal means.  She hunts and trades on the black market.  Living in a totalitarian society, she learned from an early age that you do what you can to get by, even if that means breaking laws.  One of the worst abuses of her government is The Hunger Games.  Children from the poorer districts compete to the death for the entertainment of the better off Capital.

Since Katniss is poor, she has had to sell herself for more shares in the Reaping, increasing her chances of being chosen for The Hunger Games.  Her little sister is entered too.  When her sister’s name is chosen, she knows that she would never make it.  Katniss volunteers to take her place.

“I volunteer!” I gasp. “I volunteer as tribute!”

There’s some confusion on the stage.  District 12 hasn’t had a volunteer in decades and the protocol has become rusty. The rule is that once a tribute’s name has been pulled from the ball, another …  can step forward to take his or her place. (Ch. 2)

Katniss volunteers because it is the right thing to do.  She has always protected her sister.  In volunteering for The Hunger Games, she is just protecting her again.  She realizes that she is most likely going to die.  Only one person from her district has ever survived.  Yet she volunteers, because in doing so she is saving her sister, at least this once.

During the game, Katniss does her best to maintain her own personal code of ethics.  She plays the game, but mostly evades.  At the end, she uses a combination of intelligence and guts to save someone else—her partner Peeta.  She also saves herself, although what she does is very dangerous.

Katniss is relieved to learn that there can be two winners from the same district, but when she and Peeta are the only ones left the rule is rescinded.  Refusing to kill Peeta herself, Katniss arranges for them both to take poisonous berries.  She knows that the Capital won’t want to lose both of its victors.  It works.

The frantic voice of Claudius Templesmith shouts above them. “Stop! Stop! Ladies and gentlemen, I am pleased to present the victors of the Seventy-fourth Hunger Games, Katniss Everdeen and Peeta Mellark! I give you — the tributes of District Twelve!” (Ch. 25)

This is dangerous because the powers that be will realize they were manipulated and she will get in trouble.  She does it anyway, because she has no other option.  She is in a situation where it is either kill Peeta or kill herself, and she refuses to kill Peeta.  She took a calculated risk with the berries.

Katniss's insistence on doing the right thing makes her an inspiration to the downtrodden people of Panem.  She becomes the Mockingjay, the symbol of the rebellion.  People all over the country start to stand up for what they believe in, following her example.

What is the exposition of The Hundred Secret Senses?

The Hundred Secret Senses is a novel that was written in 1995 by Chinese-American author Amy Tan. The novel focuses on various themes, including cultural transition, love, loyalty, sisterhood, reincarnation, and the development of one's identity as a Chinese-American.

In her novel, Amy Tan focuses on the relationship between two sisters: Chinese-born Kwan and her American half-sister, Olivia Bishop. The majority of the story is told from the perspective of Olivia. Their relationship begins in earnest after the death of their father when Kwan, the older of the two half-siblings, is sent to live with Olivia.

Despite being her senior by 12 years, Olivia is embarrassed by her older sister's eccentricities, poor English, and nativity of Western culture. Olivia, aged four, is teased by other children for having a "retarded sister". Kwan attempts to connect with her little sister by sharing the tales of Chinese folklore with her. Shortly thereafter, Olivia begins to learn the Chinese language from her older sister. Kwan believes herself to have "yin eyes" and is thus able to see "those who have died and now dwell in the World of Yin", going as far as holding conversations with these ghosts. Unfortunately for Kwan, her sightings and conversations with dead lead to her being committed to a mental institution not long after arriving in America.

Twenty-odd years later, Olivia, now a grown woman, has become a commercial photographer struggling with her marriage to her husband Simon. As an adult, Olivia has become self-righteous and cynical. Although still embarrassed by Kwan's behavior, Olivia is now guilt-ridden for her negative feelings towards her sister. "She's like an orphan cat, kneading on my heart," states Olivia regarding her sister, Kwan.

Despite Olivia's shame for her sister, she cannot grasp why Kwan still treats with her such respect, loyalty, and love. She plans on reuniting Olivia with her estranged husband, Simon, by attempting to get the couple to visit Changmian, China, Kwan's native village. It is also revealed that Kwan's more lofty ambitions are to convince her sister to recognize the existence of the World of Yin (the spiritual realm) and the reality of reincarnation . In this way, the novel is interspersed with Kwan's narrative of her former life as a one-eyed servant girl named Nunumu.

Nunumu was employed by a group of missionaries from the Western World who lived in Changmian during the 19th century. Specifically, Kwan's narrative of Nunumu focuses on Nunumu's relationship with Miss Nelly Banner, an American-born woman with a complex romantic life. It is in this way that Kwan compares her loyalty to her sister and Nunumu's friendship with Miss Banner.

Upon receiving a work-assignment from a travel magazine, Olivia, Simon, and Kwan make the trek to Changmian. During their trip, Olivia's cynicism and priggish attitude begin to melt away and are replaced by tenderness and Kwan's faith in the "world of secret senses".  The novel concludes with Olivia's thoughts being that

The world is not a place but the vastness of the soul. And the soul is nothing more than love, limitless, endless, all that moves us toward knowing what is true. . . . And believing in ghosts -- that's believing that love never dies.

How does everything in Miss Strangeworth's town look?

Miss Strangeworth's town is clean, orderly and well-presented. In the opening paragraph, for example, a heavy night of rain has made the town look "washed and bright." On Pleasant Street, Miss Strangeworth's house has a "washed white look" and a "neat" garden. Even the Post Office is immaculately presented: the narrator describes it as "shiny" with "red brick and silver letters."

In describing the town, Bowen creates strong images of cleanliness and brightness. These images reflect Miss Strangeworth's desire to keep the town free from evil influences. For Miss Strangeworth, keeping the town "clean and sweet" is the only way to prevent "lustful" and "degraded" people from ruining what she believes to be her town.  

In the final lines of the story, however, the image of the town is changed dramatically when Miss Strangeworth receives the news that her roses, a symbol of the town's purity, have been destroyed. This act also demonstrates the story's greatest irony: that Miss Strangeworth's poison pen letters have created the very evil which she sought to prevent. 

`(2x - 5y)^5` Use the Binomial Theorem to expand and simplify the expression.

You need to use the binomial formula, such that:

`(x+y)^n = sum_(k=0)^n ((n),(k)) x^(n-k) y^k`

You need to replace 2x for x, 5y for y and 5 for n, such that:

`(2x - 5y)^5 = 5C0 (2x)^5+5C1 (2x)^4*(-5y)^1+5C2 (2x)^3*(-5y)^2+5C3 (2x)^2*(-5y)^3 + 5C4 2x*(-5y)^4 + 5C5 (-5y)^5`

By definition, nC0 = nCn = 1, hence `5C0 = 5C5 = 1.`

By definition nC1 = nC(n-1) = n, hence `5C1 = 5C4 = 5.`

By definition `nC2 = (n(n-1))/2` , hence `5C2 = 5C3 = 10.`

`(2x - 5y)^5 = 32x^5-400x^4*y+2000x^3*y^2-5000x^2*y^3 + 6250x*y^4 -3125y^5`

Hence, expanding the complex number using binomial theorem yields the simplified result `(2x - 5y)^5 = 32x^5-400x^4*y+2000x^3*y^2-5000x^2*y^3 + 6250x*y^4 -3125y^5.`

Who did Winnie like at the Tuck's house?

I edited your question to say "who did Winnie like at the Tuck's house?"  It's possible that you meant to ask "why did Winnie like the Tuck's house?"  I'll go ahead and answer both.  

Winnie likes all of the Tucks.  A reader can't claim that she likes Jesse but not Miles.  She likes all of them, and even tells the constable and her parents that she is friends with the Tuck family and was not kidnapped.  Winnie does like Jesse more than any other of the Tucks though.  Well, that might not be true.  She likes him differently than she likes the rest of the Tuck family.  She is somewhat attracted to Jesse Tuck, which is why her heart leaps into her chest every time that he comes into the room.  Jesse feels the same way about her too.  

Winnie likes the Tuck's house because it is so completely different from her house.  Her parents are strict, hovering parents.  Everything in her own house is neat and organized.  It's cold feeling, because it is a house that people live in, not a home.  The Tuck house feels like a home to her.  It's a place that she feels welcome in.  

Winnie had grown up with order. She was used to it. Under the pitiless double assaults of her mother and grandmother, the cottage where she lived was always squeaking clean, mopped and swept and scoured into limp submission. There was no room for carelessness, no putting things off until later. The Foster women had made a fortress out of duty. Within it, they were indomitable. And Winnie was in training. So she was unprepared for the homely little house beside the pond, unprepared for the gentle eddies of dust, the silver cobwebs, the mouse who lived—and welcome to him!—in a table drawer. 

What is smoking cessation?

The Mind and Body Connection

Smoking is addictive—both physically and psychologically. The physical addiction can be traced to the nicotine in each cigarette. It hooks an individual just as completely as heroin and cocaine, and the withdrawal symptoms—cravings, anxiety, agitation, nausea, cramps, depression, and dizziness—are similar.

Like these other drugs,
nicotine surges through the bloodstream and gives smokers a high—a quick jolt that makes them think they feel better. In the meantime, what really happens is that smokers develop a tolerance for nicotine, which is why they go from a couple of cigarettes a day as a teenager to two and a half packs a day as an adult. The psychological addiction is, in its own way, just as bad. Smoking becomes second nature, like blinking or breathing. If one considers that a single pack of cigarettes per day can turn into two hundred puffs a day, seven days a week, fifty-two weeks a year, it is easy to see how hard it is to quit.

The Key to Quitting

The key to quitting is patience, perseverance, and having a plan. For many people, it is simply picking a reason that they believe in to quit smoking, whether for their family or for their own personal health. Changing one’s environment is also useful, as it removes an individual from smoking triggers and can help that person avoid secondhand smoke. Tapering off is also a successful technique, though some studies show that a majority of permanent quitters achieved their goal by quitting “cold turkey.” The key to tapering off is to cut down the number of cigarettes smoked each day. Techniques for this approach involve delaying the first cigarette of the day. Whether an individual decides to taper off or quit completely, the goal must be the same: abstinence.

Practicing the “Three D’s”—delay, deep breathing, drink water—is also helpful for smoking cessation. This involves delaying smoking a cigarette when the need or craving arises, breathing deeply (while often counting to ten), and drinking a target of eight eight-ounce glasses of water each day. Water helps to flush nicotine out of the body. Keeping a diary is also an effective technique. A person can simply write down the time of day that they feel like having a cigarette, using a scale of one to three, with one representing the worst craving.

Medication has also proved to be successful for smoking cessation for some people. A medication called varenicline (Chantix) is a novel type of treatment that works by stimulating the release of low levels of dopamine in the brain. Nicotine in the cigarettes causes dopamine to be released, resulting in the positive feelings associated with smoking. At the time of smoking cessation, a drop in dopamine levels is related to the many withdrawals symptoms. By stimulating the release of this chemical in the brain, varenicline helps to reduce the signs and symptoms of withdrawal.

Varenicline also blocks nicotine receptors in the brain, so it helps the individual stay away from cigarettes. If a person resumes smoking while taking the medication, nicotine will not be able to stimulate the brain’s receptors the way it did in the past, making the habit much less pleasurable. Based on the research available thus far, it appears that varenicline works better than placebo and bupropion, another antidepressant used for quitting smoking. Taking varenicline has been associated, however, with some side effects. The most frequently reported include: nausea, headache, insomnia, bad dreams, and changes in the way food tastes. Varenicline and bupropion also may increase the risk of serious mood and behavior changes.

Other options to help a person quit smoking are: over-the-counter
nicotine patches, gum, and lozenges, which may be used alone or in combination; prescription nicotine inhalers or nasal sprays; the prescription antidepressant bupropion; alternative therapies, such as hypnosis and acupuncture; and smoking cessation classes. Self-help programs such as Internet and computer-based programs are another option. There are also telephone quit lines, cell phone programs, and text messaging programs. For some, group behavior therapy may be more helpful than self-help programs. Trying a combination of these options may work best. For example, using a nicotine patch and going to group therapy may be the best option for some individuals.

Although electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) were orginially introduced to the market in 2004, they did not gain in popularity in the United States until several years later. Beginning around 2009, debates heated up about whether e-cigarettes should be promoted as a tool for smoking cessation. Proponents of using e-cigarettes to help in the process to quit smoking argued that the devices, which release an aerosol mist containing only a small amount of nicotine, can help smokers to cut back on the habit more easily because they can still go through the motions of puffing on a cigarette without ingesting all of the toxins present in a typical cigarette. Those who argue against this method share concerns that the e-cigarette will actually draw more people into smoking—mainly youths. By 2015, studies were still underway to determine what kind of impact e-cigarettes actually have on attempts to quit smoking.

Bibliography

Potts, Lisa A., and Candice L. Garwood. “Varenicline: The Newest Agent for Smoking Cessation.” American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 64.13 (2007): 1381–84. Print.

"Smoking and Tobacco Use: Quitting Smoking." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC, 21 May 2015. Web. 27 Oct. 2015.

Tavernise, Sabrina. "A Hot Debate Over E-Cigarettes as a Path to Tobacco, or From It." New York Times. New York Times, 22 Feb. 2014. Web. 27 Oct. 2015.

White, Adrian R., Russell C. Moody, and John L. Campbell. “Acupressure for Smoking Cessation—A Pilot Study.” BMC Addictions & Substance Abuse 7.8 (2007): 14. Print.

Williams, Katherine E., et al. “A Double-Blind Study Evaluating the Long-Term Safety of Varenicline for Smoking Cessation.” Current Medical Research and Opinion 23.4 (2007): 793–801. Print.

Briefly describe the domestic policy of Napoleon.

Napoleon is of course remembered for his military exploits, but he also devoted considerable energy to domestic reforms during his his reign as First Consul and later Emperor. In fact, many of these reforms were aimed at re-creating revolutionary France as a modern nation-state capable of supporting his imperial ambitions. For example, he established a centralized banking system that included a national bank modeled after that of England. The notes issued by this bank held their value, helping to stave off inflation and creating a source of credit that could be used to finance Napoleon's wars. He also created schools known as lycées that were open to Frenchmen regardless of social class, an attempt to train educated and competent civil servants. He maintained many of the legal reforms of the Revolution in the famous Code Napoleon, especially the permanent abolition of the three social orders that characterized Bourbon France. He also sought to foster French nationalism, which was a major factor in his Concordat with the Catholic Church, disestablished by the French Revolutionaries. Along those same lines, he rolled back many of the gains made by women during the radical phase of the Revolution. He also established price controls over grain and other essential items, attempting again to curb inflation. Some of Napoleon's domestic reforms stuck, others did not, but most were aimed at strengthening the French state to fulfill his ambitions.

What is viral pharyngitis?

Definition

Viral pharyngitis is a sore, inflamed throat caused by infection with a virus.

Causes

The viruses most likely to cause a sore throat are adenovirus,
rhinovirus, parainfluenza virus, coxsackie virus,
herpes simplex
virus, Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, and the human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV).

Risk Factors

Risk factors for viral pharyngitis include cigarette smoking or exposure to secondhand smoke; living or working in close quarters (such as day care, school, or military); diabetes; lowered immunity caused by excess fatigue, poor eating habits, and poor hygiene; and recent illness. Also, children are at greatest risk.

Symptoms

Symptoms of viral pharyngitis include a sore, red, swollen throat; trouble swallowing; decreased appetite; fatigue; and swollen, tender lymph nodes in the neck and behind the ears.

Screening and Diagnosis

A doctor will ask about symptoms and medical history and will perform a
physical exam. Most viral sore throats are diagnosed based on the symptoms and
examination of the throat. Often, the throat will be swabbed to rule out a strep
infection, which would require treatment with antibiotics.
A viral sore throat is a diagnosis of exclusion; that is, it is made when a sore
throat is present and strep is unlikely. Even in the absence of strep, some types
of sore throats need further tests or treatment.

Treatment and Therapy

There are no treatments to cure a viral sore throat. Most cases of viral pharyngitis heal on their own within about one week. A sore throat, however, may be the initial symptom of an HIV infection.

Treatments to relieve symptoms until the infection heals include
over-the-counter pain medication, such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen. Aspirin,
however, is not recommended for children or teens with a current or recent viral
infection because of the risk of Reye’s syndrome. One should consult a
doctor about medicines that are safe for children.

Other treatments are gargling with warm salt-water and using throat lozenges
every couple of hours; drinking increased amounts of fluids (including hot drinks
and soups); and running a cool-mist humidifier, which can help keep nasal passages
moist and reduce congestion, two factors that can worsen a sore throat.

Prevention and Outcomes

To reduce the chance of getting a viral sore throat, one should practice good
hygiene, including careful handwashing; should avoid sharing food or beverages;
and should avoid areas where people are smoking. One should seek medical care if
the sore throat worsens; if the sore throat is associated with new or serious
symptoms, especially difficult breathing, weakness, or chills; or if the sore
throat does not get better within the time frame predicted by a doctor.

Bibliography

Ferrari, Mario. PDxMD Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders. Philadelphia: PDxMD, 2003.

Kimball, Chad T. Colds, Flu, and Other Common Ailments Sourcebook. Detroit: Omnigraphics, 2001.

Pechère, Jean Claude, and Edward L. Kaplan, eds. Streptococcal Pharyngitis: Optimal Management. New York: S. Karger, 2004.

Vincent, Miriam T. “Sore Throat-Strep Throat? When to Worry.” Pediatrics for Parents 21, no. 8 (August 1, 2004): 11-12.