What is the industrial or agricultural profile of a country?

Industrial or agricultural profiles of a country gives us an in-depth analysis of the state of industries or agriculture in that particular country. This information (or profile) enables decision makers in making strategic decisions. The profile details the various components or constituents of the industry or agriculture, its current status, and future trends in comparison to competitors. 

For example, the agricultural profile of a country will include the major crops that are grown, the trend in productivity (using past and current data), technology used, major benefits, significant modifications and future trends in terms of productivity, among others. This data will help the decision makers in strategic decisions, such as storage requirements, minimum price of the crop, decisions regarding the crops' import or export, irrigation requirements, etc. 

Similar profiles can also be made about the industry (as a whole) or a particular industry within the country.

Hope this helps. 

Where does diffusion occur in plant and animal cells?

Diffusion occurs across the cell membrane of plant and animal cells. Diffusion is a mode of cellular transport that moves ions, water, and other small nutrients into and out of the cell.

Diffusion is a form of passive transport, which implies that it does not require the use of energy. Diffusion is defined as the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. In other words, particles experiencing diffusion move down their concentration gradient.

This movement is the result of the random kinetic motion of the particles within a substance. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. All particles are in constant, random motion. It is this motion that results in the diffusion of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration until a state of equilibrium has been reached.

What is nephrology?

Science and Profession

Nephrology is the branch of medicine that deals with the function of the kidneys. As a consequence, a nephrologist frequently deals with problems related to homeostasis, that is, the maintenance of the internal environment of the body. The most obvious function of the kidneys is their ability to regulate the excretion of water and minerals from the body, at the same time serving to eliminate nitrogenous wastes in the form of urea. While such waste material, produced as by-products of cell metabolism, is removed from the circulation, essential nutrients from body fluids are retained within the renal apparatus. These nutrients include proteins, carbohydrates, and electrolytes, some of which help maintain the proper acid-base balance within the blood. In addition, cells in the kidneys regulate red blood cell production through the release of the hormone erythropoietin.

The human excretory system includes two kidneys, which lie in the rear of the abdominal cavity on opposite sides of the spinal column. Urine is produced by the kidneys through a filtration network composed of 2 million nephrons, the actual functional units within each kidney. Two ureters, one for each kidney, serve to remove the collected urine and transport this liquid to the urinary bladder. The urethra drains urine from the bladder, voiding the liquid from the body.

Each adult human kidney is approximately 11 centimeters in length, with a shape resembling a bean. When the kidney is sectioned, three anatomical regions are visible: a light-colored outer cortex; a darker inner region, called the medulla; and the renal pelvis, the lowest portion of the kidney. The cortex consists primarily of a network of nephrons and associated blood capillaries. Tubules extending from each nephron pass into the medulla. The medulla, in turn, is visibly divided into about a dozen conical masses, or pyramids, with the base of the pyramid at the junction between the cortex and medulla and the apex of the pyramid extending into the renal pelvis. The loops (such as the loop of Henle) and tubules within the medulla carry out the reabsorption of nutrients and fluids that have passed through the capsular network of the nephron. The tubules extend through the medulla and return to the cortical region.

There are approximately 1 million nephrons in each kidney. Within each nephron, the actual filtration of blood is carried out within a bulb-shaped region, Bowman’s capsule, which surrounds a capillary network, the glomerulus. In most individuals, a single renal artery brings the blood supply to the kidney. Since the renal artery originates from a branch of the aorta, the body’s largest artery, the blood pressure within this region of the kidney is high. Consequently, hypotension, a significant lowering of blood pressure, may also result in kidney failure.

The renal artery enters the kidney through the renal pelvis, branching into progressively smaller arterioles and capillaries. The capillary network serves both to supply nutrition to the cells that make up the kidney and to collect nutrients or fluids reabsorbed from the loops and tubules of the nephrons. Renal capillaries also enter the Bowman’s capsules in the form of balls or coils, the glomeruli. Since blood pressure remains high, the force filtration in a nephron pushes about 20 percent of the fluid volume of the glomerulus into the cavity portion of the capsule. Most small materials dissolved in the blood, including proteins, sugars, electrolytes, and the nitrogenous waste product urea, pass along within the fluid into the capsule. As the filtrate passes through the series of convoluted tubules extending from the Bowman’s capsule, most nutrients and salts are reabsorbed and reenter the capillary network. Approximately 99 percent of the water that has passed through the capsule is also reabsorbed. The material which remains, much of it waste such as urea, is excreted from the body.

Nephrology is the branch of medicine that deals with these functions of the kidney. Loss of kidney function can quickly result in a buildup of waste material in the blood; hence kidney failure, if untreated, can result in serious illness or death. Within the purview of nephrology, however, is more than the function of the kidneys as filters for the excretion of wastes. The kidneys are also endocrine organs, structures that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to act on other, distal organs. The major endocrine functions of the kidneys involve the secretion of the hormones renin and erythropoietin.

Renin functions within the renin-angiotensin system in the regulation of blood pressure. It is produced within the juxtaglomerular complex, the region around Bowman’s capsule in which the arteriole enters the structure. Cells within the tubules of the nephron closely monitor the blood pressure within the incoming arterioles. When blood pressure drops, these cells stimulate the release of renin directly into the blood circulation.

Renin does not act directly on the nephrons. Rather, it serves as a proteolytic enzyme that activates another protein, angiotensin, the precursor of which is found in the blood. The activated angiotensin, called angiotensin II, has several effects on kidney function that involve the regulation of blood pressure. First, by decreasing the glomerular filtration rate, it allows more water to be retained. Second, angiotensin II stimulates the release of the steroid hormone aldosterone from the adrenal glands, located in close association with the kidneys. Aldosterone acts to increase sodium retention and transport by cells within the tubules of the nephron, resulting in increased water reabsorption. The result of this complex series of hormone interactions within the kidney is a close monitoring of both salt retention and blood pressure and volume. In this manner, nephrology also relates to the pathophysiology of hypertension—high blood pressure.

The kidneys also regulate the production of erythrocytes, red blood cells, through the production of the hormone erythropoietin. Erythropoietin is secreted by the peritubular cells associated with regions outside the nephrons in response to lowered oxygen levels in the blood, also monitored by cells within the kidney. The hormone serves to stimulate red cell production within the bone marrow. Approximately 85 percent of the erythropoietin in blood fluids is synthesized within the kidneys, the remainder by the liver.

Since proper kidney function is related to a wide variety of body processes, from the regulation of nitrogenous waste disposal to the monitoring and control of blood pressure, nephrology may deal with a number of disparate syndromes. The kidney may represent the primary site of a disease or pathology, an example being the autoimmune phenomenon of glomerulonephritis. Renal failure may also result from the indirect action of a more general systemic syndrome, as is the case with diabetes mellitus. In many cases, the decrease in kidney function may result from any number of disorders, which poses many problems for the nephrologist.

Proper function of the kidney is central to numerous homeostatic processes within the body. Thus nephrology by necessity deals with a variety of pathophysiological disorders. Renal dysfunction may involve disorders of the organ itself or pathology associated with individual structures within the kidneys, the glomeruli or tubules. Likewise, the disorder within the body may be of a more general type, with the kidney being a secondary site of damage. This is particularly true of immune disorders such as lupus (systemic lupus erythematosus) or diabetes. Conditions that affect proper kidney function may result from infection or inflammation, the obstruction of tubules or the vascular system, or neoplastic disorders (cancers).

Immune disorders are among the more common processes that result in kidney disease. They may be of two types: glomerulonephritis or the more general nephrotic syndrome. Glomerulonephritis can result either from a direct attack on basement membrane tissue by host antibodies, such as with Goodpasture’s syndrome, or indirectly through deposits of immune (antigen-antibody) complexes, such as with lupus. Nephritis may also be secondary to high blood pressure. In any of these situations, inflammation resulting from the infiltration of immune complexes and/or from the activation of the complement system may result in a decreased ability of the glomeruli to function. Treatment of such disorders often involves the use of corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive drugs to dampen the immune response. Continued recurrence of the disease may result in renal failure, requiring dialysis treatment or even kidney transplantation.

Activation of the complement system as a result of immune complex deposition along the glomeruli is a frequent source of inflammation. Complement consists of a series of some dozen serum proteins, many of which are pharmacologically active. Intermediates in the complement pathway include enzymes that activate subsequent components in a cascade fashion. The terminal proteins in the pathway form a “membrane attack complex,” capable of significantly damaging a target (such as the basement membrane of a Bowman’s capsule). Activation of the initial steps in the pathway begins with either the deposition of immune complexes along basement membranes or the direct binding of antibodies on glomerular surfaces. The end result can be extensive nephrotic destruction.

Nephrotic syndrome, which can also result in extensive damage to the glomeruli, is often secondary to other disease. Diabetes is a frequent primary disorder in its development; approximately one-third of insulin-dependent diabetics are at risk for significant renal failure. Other causes of nephrotic syndrome may include cancer or infectious agents and toxins.

Diagnostic and Treatment Techniques

Nephrologists can measure glomerular function using a variety of tests. These tests are based on the ability of the basement membranes associated with the glomeruli to act as filters. Blood cells and large materials such as proteins dissolved in the blood are unable to pass through these filters. Plasma, the liquid portion of the blood containing dissolved factors involved in blood-clotting mechanisms, is able to pass through the basement membrane, the driving force for filtration being the hydrostatic pressure of the blood (blood pressure).

The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is defined as the rate by which the glomeruli filter the plasma during a fixed period of time. Generally, the rate is determined by measuring either the time of clearance of the carbohydrate inulin from the blood or the rate of clearance of creatinine, a nitrogenous by-product of metabolism. Though the rate may vary with age, it generally is about 125 to 130 milliliters of plasma filtered per minute.

Any significant decrease in the GFR is indicative of renal failure and can result in significant disruptions of acid-base or electrolyte balance in the blood. A decrease in the GFR can sometimes be observed through measurements of urine output. Healthy individuals usually excrete from 1 to 2 liters of urine per day. If the urine output drops to less than 500 milliliters (0.5 liter) per day, a condition known as oliguria, the body suffers a diminished capacity to remove metabolic waste products (urea, creatinine, or acids). Taken to an extreme, in which the filtering capacity is completely shut down and urine formation drops below 100 milliliters per day (anuria), the resulting uremia may cause death in a matter of days.

Anuria may have a variety of causes: kidney failure; hypotension, in which blood pressure is insufficient to maintain glomerular filtration; or a blockage in the urinary tract. As waste products, fluids, and electrolytes (especially sodium and potassium) build up, the person may appear puffy, be feverish, and exhibit muscle weakness. Heart arrhythmia or failure may also occur. Mediation of the problem, in addition to attempts to alleviate the reasons for kidney dysfunction, include regulation of fluid, protein, and electrolyte uptake. Medications are also used to increase the excretion of potassium and tissue fluids, assuming that the cause is not a urinary blockage.

The nephrologist or other physician may also monitor kidney function through measurements of serum analytes or through observation of certain chemicals within the urine. The levels of blood, urea, and nitrogen (BUN), nitrogenous substances in the blood, present a rough measure of kidney function. Generally, BUN levels change significantly only after glomerular filtration has been significantly disrupted. The levels are also dependent on the amount of protein intake in the diet. When changes occur as a result of renal dysfunction, BUN levels can be a useful marker for the progression of the disease. A more specific indicator of renal function can be the creatinine concentration within the blood. Serum creatinine, unlike BUN levels, is not related to the diet. In the event of renal failure, however, changes in BUN levels usually can be detected earlier than those of creatinine.

As the glomeruli lose their ability to distinguish large from small molecules during filtration, protein can begin to appear in the urine, the condition known as proteinuria. Usually, the level of protein in the urine is negligible (less than 250 milligrams per day). A transient proteinuria can result from heavy exercise or minor illness, but persistent levels of more than 1 gram per day may be indicative of renal dysfunction or even complications of hypertension. Generally, if the problem resides in the loss of tubular reabsorption, levels of protein generally are below 1 to 2 grams per day, with that amount usually consisting of small proteins. If the problem is a result of increased glomerular permeability caused by inflammation, levels may reach greater than 2 grams per day. In cases of nephrotic syndrome, excretion of protein in the urine may exceed 5 grams per day.

Measurement of urine protein is a relatively easy process. A urine sample is placed on a plastic stick with an indicator pad capable of turning colors, depending on the protein concentration. Analogous strips may be used for detection of other materials in urine, including acid, blood, or sugars. The presence of either red or white blood cells in urine can be indicative of infection or glomerulonephritis.

In addition to the filtration of blood fluids through the nephrons, the reabsorption of materials within the tubules results in increased urine concentration. A normal GFR within a healthy kidney produces a urine concentration three or four times as great as that found within serum. As kidney failure progresses, the concentration of urine begins to decrease, with the urine becoming more dilute. The kidneys compensate for the decreased concentration by increasing the amount of urine output: The frequency of urination may increase, as well as the volume excreted (polyuria). In time, if renal failure continues, the GFR will decrease, resulting in the retention of both analytes and water.

Determination of urine concentration is carried out following a brief period of dehydration: deprivation of fluids for about fifteen hours prior to the test. This dehydration will result in increased production by the hypothalamus of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), or vasopressin, a chemical that decreases the production of urine through increased renal tubule reabsorption of water. The result is a more concentrated urine. Following the dehydration period, the patient’s urine is collected over a period of three hours and assessed for concentration. Significantly low values may be indicative of kidney disease.

A battery of tests in addition to those already described may be utilized in the diagnosis of kidney disease. These may include intravenous pyelography (in which a contrast medium is injected into the blood and followed as it passes through the kidneys), kidney biopsy, and ultrasound examinations. Diagnosis and course of treatment depend on an evaluation of these tests.

Perspective and Prospects

The roots of modern nephrology date from the seventeenth century. In the early decades of that century, the English physician William Harvey demonstrated the principles of blood circulation and the role of the heart in that process. Harvey’s theories opened the door for more extensive analysis of organ systems, both in humans and in other animals. As a result, in 1666, Italian anatomist Marcello Malpighi, while exploring organ structure with the newly developed microscope, discovered the presence of glomeruli (what he called Malpighian corpuscles) within the kidneys. Malpighi thought that these structures were in some way connected with collecting ducts in the kidneys that had recently been found by Lorenzo Bellini. Malpighi also suspected that these structures played a role in urine formation.

Sir William Bowman, in 1832, was the first to describe the true relationship of the corpuscles discovered by Malpighi to urine secretion through the tubules. Bowman’s capsule, as it is now called, is a filter that allows only the liquid of the blood, as well as dissolved salts and urea within the blood, into the tubules, from which the urine is secreted. It remained for Carl Ludwig, in 1842, to complete the story. Ludwig suggested that the corpuscles function in a passive manner, in that the filtrate is filtered by means of hydrostatic pressure through the capsule into the tubules and from there concentrated as water and solutes that are reabsorbed.

The first definitive work on urine formation, The Secretion of the Urine, was published by Arthur Robertson Cushny in 1917. In the monograph, Cushny offered a thorough analysis of the data published on kidney function. Though Cushny was incorrect in some of his conclusions, the work catalyzed intensive research activity on the functions of the kidney. A colleague of Cushny, E. Brice Mayrs, made the first attempt to determine the glomerular filtration rate, measuring the clearance of sulfate in rabbits. In 1926, the Danish physiologist Poul Brandt Rehberg demonstrated the superiority of creatinine as a marker for glomerular filtration; the “guinea pig” for the experiment was Rehberg himself.

A pioneer in renal physiology, Homer William Smith, began his research while serving in the United States Army during World War I. Until he retired in 1961, Smith was involved in much of the research related to renal excretion. It was Smith who developed inulin clearance as a measure of the GFR; his later years dealt with studies on mechanisms of solute excretion.

With the newer technology of the late twentieth century, more accurate methods for analysis became available. These have included ultrasound scanning, intravenous pyelography, and angiography. In addition, better understanding of immediate causes of many kidney problems has served to control or prevent some forms of renal failure.

Bibliography

Brenner, Barry M., ed. Brenner and Rector’s The Kidney. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2008. Print.

Cameron, Stewart. Kidney Disease: The Facts. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 1990. Print.

Floege, Jurgen, Richard J. Johnson, and John Feehally. Comprehensive Clinical Nephrology: Expert Consult. St. Louis: Mosby, 2010. Print.

Hricik, Donald E., R. Tyler Miller, and John R. Sedor, eds. Nephrology Secrets. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Hanley, 2003. Print.

Legrain, Marcel, et al. Nephrology. Trans. M. Cavaillé-Coll. New York: Masson, 1987. Print.

Lerma, Edgar, and Allen R. Nissenson. Nephrology Secrets. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2011. Print.

Marieb, Elaine N. Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology. 9th ed. San Francisco: Pearson, 2009. Print.

Mitchell, Rosner H, and Edgar V. Lerma. Clinical Decisions in Nephrology, Hypertension and Kidney Transplantation. New York: Springer, 2013. Print.

O’Callaghan, Chris A., and Barry M. Brenner. The Kidney at a Glance. Boston: Blackwell, 2000. Print.

Tanagho, Emil A., and Jack W. McAninich, eds. Smith’s General Urology. 17th ed. New York: McGraw, 2008. Print.

Wallace, Robert A., Gerald P. Sanders, and Robert J. Ferl. Biology: The Science of Life. 4th ed. New York: Harper, 1996. Print.

Whitworth, Judith A., and J. R. Lawrence, eds. Textbook of Renal Disease. 2nd ed. New York: Churchill, 1994. Print.

In "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas," what is the relationship between happiness and necessity?

According to the narrator of "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas," "Happiness is based on a just discrimination of what is necessary, what is neither necessary nor destructive, and what is destructive."

What that means is that we find happiness not by being naive--not by going "tra la la, everything is wonderful, let me play my pipe and join the parade"-- but by making a wise judgment about what we truly need, what we simply enjoy that isn't totally necessary, and what is bad and not at all needed.

The implication seems to be that if we can make these judgments and live our lives according to them, then we are happy. Necessity and an understanding of it, then, is both a necessary and a sufficient element of happiness.

For example, if all you have is a roof over your head and something to eat each day, then you've got all that is necessary and should be happy. And further, if you have a musical instrument to play, or a parade to join, or beautiful weather, or nice clothes, then you have even more than that: you have something "neither necessary nor destructive." And, most importantly, if you're willingly engaging in any immoral activities (such as allowing the neglect and abuse of a child) then you've either made a judgment that it's a necessary evil (in which case, you're happy, and you stay in Omelas) or you've made the opposite judgment that it's too evil to be necessary (in which case, you walk away from Omelas).

It's a good question to ask, because the narrator calls Omelas the city of happiness; she describes the festival and the music and the love and joy there as well as the city's darker side. But she asserts that the citizens aren't simply "naive and happy children – though their children were, in fact, happy. They were mature, intelligent, passionate adults whose lives were not wretched." What the narrator means by that is that the citizens of Omelas are realistic about their happiness; they've come to understand that they have more than what they simply need to survive.

Discuss the evolution and future of E-commerce.

According to several internet historians, the first known e-commerce transaction was a drug deal. Students at Stanford University's Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and Massachussetts Institute of Technology used their Arpanet accounts to buy weed from each other in 1971 or 1972. 

Since then, e-commerce has expanded to include a wide range of commercial activities. The 1980s saw the initial development of online shopping in tandem with the growth of email and bulletin board systems. Many bulletin boards had classified advertisements and allowed niche businesses to connect with customers. 

The 1990s saw the increasing market penetration of the internet, facilitated by development of the first web browsers. Amazon was founded in 1995. Business-to-business applications began to move online in this period.

The major innovations of the 2000s were the rise of mobile phones and the development of secure electronic payment systems such as PayPal and the ubiquity of electronic banking. 

Although we cannot actually know the future, on the basis of existing trends, we can foresee that e-commerce will replace bricks-and-mortar in many areas, often with physical stores simply acting as showrooms for electronic ones. Although cash may not entirely disappear, electronic wallets, often centered on smart phones, will be increasingly dominant. Logistics infrastructure will remain the key to successful e-commerce, especially as it expands into frontier markets.

Who is Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, and how does he help Helen Keller?

Dr Bell, best known now as an inventor, was a doctor who helped people with hearing deficiencies. Keller first meets him when she is six years old:

He held me on his knee while I examined his watch, and he made it strike for me. He understood my signs, and I knew it and loved him at once. But I did not dream that that interview would be the door through which I should pass from darkness into light, from isolation to friendship, companionship, knowledge, love.

After the meeting, Helen wrote one of her first letters to Bell:

Dear Mr. Bell. I am glad to write you a letter, Father will send you picture. I and Father and aunt did go to see you in Washington. I did play with your watch. I do love you.

It was through Dr Bell that Helen found her teacher, Anne Mansfield Sullivan. But Bell became a lifelong friend of Keller's. In her autobiography, she mentions visiting the World's Fair in 1893, and how Dr Bell “went everywhere with us and in his own delightful way described to me the objects of greatest interest.” Later in her book, she describes visiting Bell at his laborotory on Cape Breton Island:

Dr. Bell is proficient in many fields of science, and has the art of making every subject he touches interesting, even the most abstruse theories. He makes you feel that if you only had a little more time, you, too, might be an inventor. He has a humorous and poetic side, too. His dominating passion is his love for children. He is never quite so happy as when he has a little deaf child in his arms.

The portrait of Bell that emerges from Keller's book is of a man possessed of great intellectual curiosity, but also great empathy. His ability to understand Helen, even when she is very young, and his delight in introducing her to new ideas and concepts, was a key part of her intellectual and emotional awakening.

What is systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)?

Causes and Symptoms

The cause of lupus is unknown, but scientists believe that both genetic and environmental factors are involved. Although there is a genetic predisposition to lupus, and researchers have identified an associated gene in some cases, only 10 percent of lupus patients have a familial connection and only 5 percent of children born to individuals with lupus will develop the disease. People of African, American Indian, Asian, and Hispanic origin seem to develop the disease more frequently than do non-Hispanic Caucasians. Lupus affects both men and women, but the incidence is ten to fifteen times higher in women and between 85 and 90 percent of patients are women. The majority of lupus diagnoses occur in young women in their late teens to thirties. It is possible that hormonal factors play a role in this disparity, because it is known that symptoms in women increase before menstrual cycles and during pregnancy. Environmental triggers include infections, exposure to ultraviolet light, and extreme stress, as well as antibiotic usage (particularly penicillin and those in the sulfa group). Certain other drugs, particularly hydralazine, procainamide, and isoniazid, can also cause lupus, but this type of drug-induced
lupus usually disappears after the offending drug is discontinued.

Symptoms may begin suddenly with fever or may develop gradually over the course of months or years. The clinical course is usually marked by remissions, periods when symptoms are minimal or absent, and relapses (called flare-ups), when the patient experiences an aggravation of symptoms and general malaise.

SLE can affect all organ systems of the body. The production of autoantibodies is the underlying physiologic problem in lupus. These autoantibodies can appear in a great number and variety, differing from patient to patient, thus causing their varying symptoms. General symptoms include fatigue, fever, anemia, weight loss, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and headaches. Joint
inflammation and pain (arthritis) occurs in about 90 percent of patients and is often the earliest manifestation of the disease. It usually occurs intermittently and generally does not cause permanent joint damage or deformity. Skin manifestations are present in most patients and include malar (butterfly) and/or discoid skin rashes; redness on the hands, fingertips, and nails; mucous membrane
ulcers in the mouth and nose; and photosensitivity. Inflammation of the sac around the lungs (pleurisy) or heart (pericarditis) is a frequent occurrence, resulting in pain upon deep breathing or chest pain. On rare occasions, there may be severe complications, such as bleeding into the lungs, which is life-threatening, or cardiac failure. Neurologic complications may also occur, including headaches, thinking impairment, personality changes, seizures, strokes, depression, dementia, and psychosis. Kidney involvement may be either minor or progressive, leading to severe nephritis that can be fatal. Ocular changes sometimes occur, causing conjunctivitis or blurred vision. In rare cases, retinitis, inflammation of the blood vessels at the back of the eye, can occur, leading to blindness if not treated quickly.

SLE is difficult to diagnose, due to its variety of symptoms and similarity to many other diseases. The constellation of symptoms appears and progresses differently for each patient and initially may seem vague and unrelated. Usually, patients will first see their family doctors. Upon diagnosis or the discovery of particular body system involvement, the family doctor may refer the patient on to one or more specialists. There is no single test for lupus. A physician will perform several laboratory tests as part of the differential diagnostic process, including various blood and urine tests and biopsies of the skin and kidney. For a positive diagnosis of SLE, a patient must have at least four of the eleven criteria established by the American College of Rheumatology: malar rash, discoid rash, photosensitivity, oral ulcers, arthritis, serositis, renal disorder, neurologic disorder, hematologic disorder, immunologic disorder, and the presence of antinuclear antibodies (ANA).

Treatment and Therapy

There is no cure for lupus. Treatment is aimed at minimizing symptoms, reducing inflammation, and maintaining normal bodily functions. The treatment approach will vary according to the specific symptoms and organ involvement of the individual patient.

Preventive therapy involves lifestyle strategies aimed at reducing the risk of flare-up episodes. Patients are advised to follow a healthy diet, get adequate rest, and participate in moderate weight-bearing exercise in order to combat fatigue and muscle weakness. Counseling, support groups, and patient education help reduce stress and protect emotional well-being. Other recommendations include smoking cessation, limited alcohol intake, and adequate intake of vitamin D and calcium. Avoidance of excessive sun exposure through the use of protective clothing and sunscreens can reduce the occurrence of skin rashes and possibly systemic disease flares. Patients can learn to recognize the warning signs of an impending flare-up, such as increased fatigue, headaches, dizziness, stomach upset, fever, or the appearance of a rash. Regular laboratory tests can also detect an imminent flare-up. Early treatment of flare-ups can make them easier to control, can prevent tissue damage, and may reduce the length of time that the patient is given high doses of drugs.

Medications are an integral part of the treatment of lupus, and fall into four main categories: nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs),
corticosteroids, antimalarial drugs, and cytotoxic and immunosuppressive agents.

NSAIDs are used to control symptoms and reduce muscle and joint pain and inflammation. Commonly used NSAIDs include acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), ibuprofen, naproxen, indomethacin, sulindac, nabumetone, tolmetin, and ketoprofen. Since these drugs can cause stomach upset, patients are usually advised to take them with meals or to take antacids or prostaglandins as well. Some NSAIDs have a prostaglandin added to the capsule. Patients taking NSAIDs must be monitored because of the potential adverse effects to the liver, kidney, and central nervous system.

Corticosteriods are synthetic hormones that have excellent anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects and reduce symptoms promptly. They are used to treat a spectrum of lupus manifestations, especially in cases when organs are threatened. Prednisone is the most commonly used, followed by hydrocortisone, methylprednisolone, and others. Topical formulations are used for skin rashes, and oral doses are given for systemic involvement. Dosages are monitored carefully and tapered after initial inflammation reduction is achieved in order to reduce possible side effects. Corticosteroids may also be administered by injection into the skin or joint. For severe cases, intravenous administration of large doses of methylprednisolone (called pulse
steroids) for three days is given. Unfortunately, high doses of corticosteroids over long periods of time can produce unpleasant side effects, such as weight gain, rounded face, acne, emotional lability, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, increased risk of infection, diabetes, and osteoporosis.

Antimalarial drugs are frequently used in the management of skin rashes, joint inflammation, and serositis, though it may take months before their beneficial effects become apparent. They also help protect against the damaging effects of ultraviolet light. The most common agents are hydroxychloroquine (Plaquenil), chloroquine (Aralen), and quinicrine (Atabrine). These medications can be taken in combination with NSAIDs and other drugs to increase their effectiveness. They are particularly helpful when used with corticosteroids in order to decrease the amount of steroid needed. Damage to the retina is a potential side effect and is dose-related. Patients must be evaluated by an ophthalmologist twice a year.

Cytotoxic and immunosuppressive agents are potent drugs utilized in cases requiring aggressive therapy to protect major organs. They are used in conjunction with, or in place of, corticosteroids in order to spare the patient the side effects of the corticosteroids. Cytotoxics are not approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the treatment of SLE; however, they are considered part of standard practice. These drugs target autoantibodies, thus suppressing the overactive immune response of lupus patients. Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxin) and azathioprine (Imuran) are both used in the treatment of lupus nephritis and are also effective in combating blood cell deficiencies, pulmonary bleeding, vasculitis, and central nervous system disease. Imuran is less potent but causes fewer side effects than does Cytoxin. Methotrexate, mycophenolate mofetil (CellCept), cyclosporine, chlorambucil, and nitrogen mustard are other cytotoxic agents that have been used in the management of lupus. Intravenous immunoglobulin injections are given to some patients to increase the production of blood platelets. Side effects of cytotoxic drugs include nausea, hair loss, increased risk of certain cancers, increased risk of infection, sterility, and bone marrow suppression.

Pregnancy in a lupus patient requires special care. Even though more than 50 percent of lupus pregnancies follow a normal course, all lupus pregnancies are considered high risk. Doctors recommend planning pregnancy during times of remission. Recent studies contradict the traditional belief that pregnancy increases the chance of flare-ups and also suggest that most flare-ups during pregnancy are mild, consisting only of rashes, fatigue, and arthritis. Frequent doctor visits are a necessity in order to detect and treat any problems early. The obstetrician will regularly check the baby’s growth and heartbeat in order to detect any abnormalities that might signal problems. Some lupus medications, such as prednisone, are safe to take during pregnancy because they do not cross the placenta. Others, such as cyclophosphamide, need to be used with caution or discontinued during the pregnancy.

About 20 percent of women with lupus experience preeclampsia during their pregnancy. This is a serious condition in which there is a sudden increase in blood pressure and/or protein in the urine requiring immediate treatment of the patient and delivery of the baby.

About one-third of women with lupus have antiphospholipid antibodies. These antibodies cause blood clots, which puts the patient at risk for developing them in the placenta, interfering with the nourishment of the baby. Since these blood clots usually form in the placenta in the second trimester, often the baby has developed enough to be delivered prematurely. The mother can be treated with heparin, which reduces the chance of clots and miscarriage.

About 50 percent of lupus pregnancies result in birth before full term. The majority of babies born between thirty and thirty-six weeks will grow normally with no problems. Those born before thirty-six weeks are considered premature. Approximately 3 percent of women with lupus will have a baby with a syndrome called neonatal lupus. This syndrome consists of a transient rash and blood count abnormalities and disappears by three to six months of age. Sometimes, a permanent abnormality in the heartbeat also occurs, but it is treatable and the baby is able to grow normally.

Perspective and Prospects

The identification of lupus as a distinct medical entity dates back to the twelfth century, when the term “lupus” (Latin for “wolf”) was used to describe ulcerative facial lesions, because they looked similar to either a wolf’s bite or a wolf’s facial markings. Other descriptions of the various dermatologic manifestations of lupus were noted by physicians over the next several centuries; the first medical textbook illustration occurred in 1856. The Viennese physician Moriz Kaposi, in 1872, was the first physician to recognize and describe the systemic manifestations of lupus, as well as the fact that there seemed to be two distinct forms of lupus, discoid and systemic. This was soon expanded upon by Canadian physician Sir William Osler, who detailed the major organ manifestations. In the late nineteenth century, the usefulness of quinine and salicylates in the treatment of lupus was reported. In the mid-twentieth century, the discovery of the immunologic aspects of lupus were discovered, when the presence of antinuclear antibodies were identified. Around this same time, the first animal models were used for the study of lupus, and the genetic component of lupus was also recognized. A major advance was the discovery of
the effectiveness of cortisone in the treatment of systemic lupus. Corticosteroids remain the primary treatment modality, complemented by antimalarials (for skin and joint involvement) and cytotoxic agents (for severe kidney manifestations and other life-threatening complications).

The prognosis for lupus patients has improved dramatically as a result of earlier diagnosis and better treatment. The long-term prognosis for a given patient is still variable, however, and is often related to the severity and the controllability of the initial inflammation. Also, the morbidity patterns of lupus patients have changed because of the increased usage of corticosteroids and cytotoxic drugs. Infections, accelerated atherosclerosis, and osteoporosis have become significant risk factors. Overall, however, the outlook for survival and quality of life has greatly improved. As of 2005, more than 90 percent of lupus patients lived more than ten years postdiagnosis. Those with organ-threatening disease had a lower rate, with only 60 percent surviving fifteen to twenty years. The Lupus Foundation of America reports that an estimated 1.5 million people in the United States and about five million people worldwide have some form of lupus.

A proliferation of research into the treatment of lupus that began in the 1950s continues and brings much promise for additional insight into the pathogenesis of lupus as well as new treatment modalities and agents. Some focus areas of current research include investigations into patterns of gene activity, the role of the protein interferon-alpha in the progression of lupus, environmental factors, immune ablation, stem cell
transplantation, and the targeting of destructive white blood cells. An intensified effort by the federal government, private industry, and nonprofit organizations, such as the Alliance for Lupus Research and the Lupus Foundation of America, fuels the hope that better treatments, prevention, and ultimately a cure for lupus will be found.

Bibliography:

Alan, Rick. "Systemic Lupus Erythmatosus." Health Library, September 1, 2011.

Hanger, Nancy C. Lupus—The First Year: An Essential Guide for the Newly Diagnosed. New York: Marlowe, 2003.

Kasitanon, Nuntana, Laurence S. Magder, and Michelle Petri. “Predictors of Survival in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus.” Medicine 85, no. 3 (May, 2006): 147–156.

Lahita, Robert G., and Robert H. Phillips. Lupus Q & A: Everything You Need to Know. Rev. ed. New York: Avery, 2004.

Lupus Foundation of America. "Statistics on Lupus." Lupus Foundation of America, 2013.

Meadows, Michelle. “Battling Lupus.” FDA Consumer 39, no. 4 (July/August, 2005): 28–34.

National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases. "Handout on Health: Systemic Lupus Erythrematosus." National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases: Lupus, August, 2011.

Phillips, Robert H. Coping With Lupus: A Practical Guide to Alleviating the Challenges of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. 4th rev. and updated ed. New York: Avery, 2012.

Seppa, N. “Self-Help: Stem Cells Rescue Lupus Patients.” Science News 169, no. 5 (February 4, 2006): 67–68.

Teitel, Ariel D. "Systemic Lupus Erythmatosus." MedlinePlus, February 2, 2012.

Wallace, Daniel J. The Lupus Book: A Guide for Patients and Their Families. 5th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Zonali, M. “Taming Lupus.” Scientific American 292, no. 3 (March, 2005): 70–77.

To pop a balloon you stab it with a pencil. If the area of the pencil tip is .001in2 and the pressure applied by the pencil to the balloon is 10...

Take note that pressure is defined as force per unit area.

`P = F/A`

(where P is the pressure,  F is the force applied and A is the surface area where the force is applied)

Plugging in the values of P and A, the formula becomes:

`10 (l b s)/( i n ^2) = F/(0.001 i n ^2)`

Isolating the  F, it yields:

`10(l b s)/(i n ^2) * 0.001 i n ^2 = F`

`0.01 lbs = F`

Therefore,  0.01 lbs of force is applied to pop the balloon. 

"The Raven" has been popular for more than one hundred years. Why doesn't it merit this continued attention?

One could argue that English language poetry has changed drastically in the years since 1845 when Edgar Allan Poe wrote "The Raven," and that therefore this classic piece of American poetry should no longer continue to claim its iconic stature. In Poe's day, traditional verse forms were the accepted style among notable poets. Poe borrowed his rhythm and meter from Elizabeth Barrett Browning, the beloved British poet. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, an American contemporary of Poe's, wrote in traditional forms. However, toward the end of the 1800s, Robert Browning was paving the way for a departure from the strict rhythm and meter of poetry by heavily using enjambment and caesura, giving his poems the rhythm of everyday speech, and in America, Walt Whitman broke from traditional verse forms even earlier. In the early years of the 20th century, Ezra Pound sought to transform poetry by his Imagism movement on both sides of the Atlantic, and although not all poems adhered to the very short, succinct forms of Imagism, the movement's advocacy for discarding traditional poetic rhythms for the rhythm or everyday speech significantly affected the Modernist and Postmodern poets to the extent that today most poetry does not conform to the strict poetic constructs Poe used in "The Raven." 

Not only is the format of "The Raven" outdated, but so is the Gothic genre it relies on, one might also argue. Even in Poe's day, the Gothic was a vestige of a previous era, the Romantics having embraced it in the late 1700s. The dark and brooding, vaguely supernatural elements used in the poem have by now been so overused that they have lost much of their effect. Therefore, because of its outdated traditional structure and genre, one could recommend that "The Raven" be removed from its perch atop American poetry.

Nevertheless, making such an argument would require casting aside not only the historic value of our literary traditions but also an appreciation of the mastery of the poetic craft. A true classic does not diminish with time because it reflects beauty of language, mastery of technique, and depth of meaning. Whether the traditional verse forms are common today or not, they are nevertheless highly pleasing to the ear. As Jerome McGann, author of a recent Poe biography, argues, "Poetry is fundamentally a musical event using language as the instrument." Poe's skill in the use of sound devices, such as alliteration, assonance, and consonance, is particularly admirable in "The Raven." Not only that, but the themes dealt with in the poem, namely grief and depression, are just as salient today as they were in 1845 because they are an immutable part of the human experience. So, although one could argue that "The Raven" no longer deserves continued attention, once could just as easily embrace it as a timeless classic and continue to marvel at its beauty and relevancy—as yet untainted by time.

How does Carnegie view charity? In what instances does Carnegie believe that charity is most beneficial?

Andrew Carnegie believed in the concept of Social Darwinism. This theory suggested that the strongest and fittest survive. While Andrew Carnegie believed in this concept, he felt those who were successful financially had an obligation to help people who needed help, especially if they were in a situation that wasn’t their fault.

Andrew Carnegie believed in a concept known as the Gospel of Wealth. He believed the wealthy needed to use their money to help the less fortunate. He was firmly against giving aid directly to the people. Instead, he believed that providing money to provide opportunities where people could help themselves would be very appropriate. Thus, Andrew Carnegie provided funds to build libraries, where people could go to increase their education. He also provided money to build universities. He believed if people were more educated, they would become more successful. He also provided money for communities to build concert halls, where the entire community could benefit from various performances.

Andrew Carnegie believed the wealthy should use their money to provide opportunities for people to better themselves and their position in life.

"The Eagle" is not only a description of the appearance of the bird." Do you agree?

In the first line, the speaker describes the eagle standing on a rock. The rock is a crag which is an uneven rock. His "hands" are crooked. The repetition of the "c" sound signifies the tough life the eagle has had. The notion of "crooked hands" (claws) suggests that the eagle is old. The speaker uses "hands" to suggest that this description and the themes that arise could also be applied to a human being. 

Being close to the sun implies the eagle is majestic. But, the eagle is standing on a crooked rock. Eventually, the eagle must return to the earth. Tennyson might be making an allusion to the myth of Icarus, a boy who flew too close to the sun and fell into the sea when his wax wings melted. The lesson from the myth is that one should not be too ambitious or too selfish. The other message is that even those that can soar will inevitably come back to the ground. 

"Wrinkled" and "claws" reiterate the eagle's old age. Recall the allusion to Icarus and the implication that the eagle is limited to the world. He must not fly too close to the sun. In the second stanza, the speaker remarks about the walls. This also suggests the eagle's limitations. The eagle's "fall" in the end could be a description of the eagle diving for a fish or some prey. But given the theme of limitations and old age, this is part of the theme that no matter how high one might soar, everyone is limited by his/her own mortality. Thus, the poem is an allegory about human life as well as the eagle's. Also understood allegorically, the eagle has the freedom in life to soar but in the end, he is limited by time and mortality. 

What is kyphosis?

Causes and Symptoms

Patients with kyphosis appear to be looking down with their shoulders markedly bent forward. They are unable to straighten their backs and their body height is reduced, causing their arms to appear to be disproportionately long. The increased curvature of the thoracic vertebrae tilts the head forward, and the patient has to raise his or her head and hyperextend his or her neck in order to look forward. This posture increases the strain on the neck muscles and leads to discomfort in the neck, shoulders, and upper back. It limits the field of vision and increases the patient’s chances of tripping over an object not directly in the line of vision. It also shifts forward the body’s center of gravity and increases the chances of falling.

In severe cases, kyphosis limits chest expansion during breathing. As a result, less air gets into the lungs, which become underventilated and prone to infections. Pneumonia
is a common cause of death in these patients. In very severe cases, the curvature of the thoracic vertebrae is so pronounced that the lower ribs lie over the pelvic cavity. Patients with severe kyphosis are not able to lie flat on their backs, and many spend most of their time sitting up in a chair or in bed, propped by a number of pillows. Unless the patient changes positions frequently, the pressure exerted by the vertebrae on the skin and subcutaneous tissue may precipitate pressure sores (bedsores)
on the upper back. Pressure sores may also develop on the buttocks. The sores often become infected, and the infection may spread to the blood, leading to septicemia and death.

The most common cause of kyphosis is osteoporosis, a disease in which the bone mass is reduced. As a result, the bones become mechanically weak and are unable to sustain the pressure of the body weight. The vertebrae gradually become wedged and partially collapsed, more so in the front (anteriorly) than in the back (posteriorly), thus increasing the forward curvature of the thoracic vertebrae. Sometimes, the compression of a vertebra is associated with sudden, very severe and incapacitating pain that is usually relieved spontaneously after about four weeks. In most cases, however, the compression is a gradual process associated with slowly worsening back discomfort. The discomfort is caused by the strain imposed on the muscles on either side of the vertebrae. In rare instances, the nerves exiting the spinal cord become trapped by the wedged or collapsed vertebrae, and the patient experiences severe pain that tends to radiate to the area supplied by the entrapped nerve.

Less common causes of kyphosis include the compression of a vertebra as a result of tumors or infections. In these cases, the angulation of the thoracic curvature is very prominent.

Treatment and Therapy

The availability of medications to treat and prevent osteoporosis, including alendronate and teriparatide, should significantly reduce the prevalence of both that disease and kyphosis. Severe cases of kyphosis or cases due to infection or tumor may require surgery.

Bibliography

Byyny, Richard L., and Leon Speroff. A Clinical Guide for the Care of Older Women: Primary and Preventive Care. 2d ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1996.

Currey, John D. Bones: Structures and Mechanics. 2d ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2006.

Heaney, Robert P. “Osteoporosis.” In Nutrition in Women’s Health, edited by Debra A. Krummel and Penny M. Kris-Etherton. Gaithersburg, Md.: Aspen, 1996.

Hodgson, Stephen F., ed. Mayo Clinic on Osteoporosis: Keeping Bones Healthy and Strong and Reducing the Risk of Fractures. Rochester, Minn.: Mayo Clinic, 2003.

Joseph, Thomas N., and David Zieve. “Kyphosis.” MedlinePlus, September 4, 2012.

Meredith, C. M. “Exercise in the Prevention of Osteoporosis.” In Nutrition of the Elderly, edited by Hamish Munro and Gunter Schlierf. Nestle’s Nutrition Workshop Series 29. New York: Raven Press, 1992.

Nelson, Miriam E., and Sarah Wernick. Strong Women, Strong Bones: Everything You Need to Know to Prevent, Treat, and Beat Osteoporosis. Rev. ed. New York: Berkley Books, 2006.

Van De Graaff, Kent M. Human Anatomy. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002.

What are the protests that the colonists used?

The colonists used several forms of protest. When the British government passed tax laws that the colonists felt were unfair such as the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts, the colonists protested in a few ways. They said these laws violated their rights as British citizens. They wanted them to be removed because they didn’t have representatives in Parliament to vote on them. They also protested by refusing to buy British products until the taxes were removed. When the Townshend Acts were passed, the colonists also began to make some of their own products.

In some cases, the colonists protested by refusing to obey the law. The colonists were upset with the Proclamation of 1763 that prevented them from moving to the land the British gained from France as a result of the French and Indian War. Some colonists went to these lands, disobeying the law. The colonists also said they weren’t going to follow the Intolerable Acts. They even formed their own militias to protect themselves in the case of attack by the British.

Colonists also protested by destroying property. Unhappy with the Tea Act, the colonists boarded ships in Boston Harbor and threw tea into the harbor. This destroyed the tea and created a financial loss for the British.

There were many methods the colonists used to protest the actions of the British. Some were nonviolent methods of protesting while other methods were more aggressive.

What feature of the sea fascinated the writer most?

Helen was fascinated by the ocean.  She recalled that because she "had always lived far inland... [she] had never had so much as a whiff of salt air."  The ocean was an entirely new experience for Helen.  She first visited the ocean when she was a young woman.  Wearing her swimming suit, Helen left the warmth of the sand and "without thought of fear plunged into the cool water."  Helen loved the movement of the waves.  That feeling of the water moving against her body filled Helen with joy.  After a frightening experience of tripping and falling into the water with her body being tossed about, Helen soon preferred to sit on rocks and feel the sea spray against her skin.  Though she could not see or hear the waves, she could feel them as they crashed on the shore.  She could even feel the pebbles being moved by the ocean water as it washed ashore.

Describe the Ewell home life.

Life was difficult in the Ewell home.  There were many children and their mother had died years before.  Their father, Bob Ewell, was a lazy drunkard.  He received welfare money from the government, but he spent what little he had on buying alcohol.  Mayella, the oldest daughter, was left to care for the house and the children.  She was in her late teens and had not attended school in many years.  Education was not valued in the Ewell family.  Burris Ewell usually went to school for the first day only each year.  The Ewell children almost always skipped school.

They lived in an old cabin near the town garbage dump.  It was small, with only four rooms.  The yard was full of junk they had gathered from the dump:

...what passed for a fence was bits of tree-limbs, broomsticks and tool shafts, all tipped with rusty hammer-heads, snaggle-toothed rake heads, shovels, axes and grubbing hoes, held on with pieces of barbed wire.  Enclosed by this barricade was a dirty yard containing the remains of a Model-T Ford (on blocks), a discarded dentist's chair, an ancient icebox, plus lesser items: old shoes, worn-out table radios, picture frames, and fruit jars, under which scrawny orange chickens pecked hopefully (To Kill a Mockingbird, Chapter 17).

Cleanliness was not a priority in the Ewell household.  Scout noted that it seemed like Mayella tried to wash up and stay clean, but this was not the case with some of the others.  Burris was sent home for head lice on the first day of school.  Scout described how dirty Burris was:

He was the filthiest human I had ever seen.  His neck was dark gray, the backs of his hands were rusty, and his fingernails were black deep into the quick (Chapter 3).

How did the factory fail to meet the needs of its workers in Lyddie?

The factory, like most factories during the time that this story takes place, failed to meet the physical and emotional needs of its workers.  

Let's start with physical needs.  The factory is a dangerous place to be, and it is hard on the body.  For example, the machines are so loud that deafness is actually a realistic possibility.  The factory did not provide any kind of ear protection.  The air quality was atrocious too.  Girls in the mills would frequently have lung problems.  Proper ventilation could have cut down on a lot of those problems.  Additionally, the girls were generally worked for such long hours with few breaks that they were operating on the borders of exhaustion.  People make dumb mistakes when they are working tired.  That's what happened to many of the girls.  It even happened to Lyddie, which is why she eventually injured her hand.  

The very fact that so many girls were willing to risk being blacklisted in order to get better working conditions means that the factories were not meeting the emotional needs of their workers.  If the workers were happy with their work or their pay, there wouldn't be a petition.  Happy workers don't petition for changes. 

What are some of the major events that cause Macbeth's downfall?

First, and most obviously, he believes the Weird Sisters.  Despite Banquo's warnings that they might not be telling him the truth, Macbeth whole-heartedly believes their prophecies to be fact. This inflames his ambition and desire for power.

As a result, he kills Duncan.  Despite his very many reasons not to kill him -- Duncan is his relative, his friend, his king, his guest, and just all around a really good guy -- he had only one reason to go ahead, and that was his ambition.  When Lady Macbeth wounds his pride by insisting that he is not a man if he will not go through with it, she seals the deal.

Later, although Macbeth has attained the position he wanted, he now has to work to hold onto it.  He fears that Banquo's family will somehow take his throne from him because the Weird Sisters said that Banquo would father kings (and so Macbeth interprets this to mean that he will not pass on his crown to his own heirs).  Thus, Macbeth arranges the murders of Banquo and Fleance, though Fleance escapes.

At this point, Macbeth tells his wife, "Blood will have blood" and "We are yet but young in deed" (3.4.151, 176).  He means that now that they have committed one murder (two for him), they will have to keep going; there are still many more people they will need to get rid of if they want to feel secure in their positions.

When next he goes to see the Weird Sisters for more information, he again believes everything he sees and hears, despite having little reason to trust them.  Hecate said that she would raise "artificial sprites" designed to make Macbeth feel more secure than he really is, and so he will let down his guard.  He naively believes everything he hears and becomes overconfident.

In the end, Macbeth's credulousness (in terms of believing everything the sisters tell him), his ambition and pride (the two qualities that compel him to murder Duncan), and his ultimate willingness to do and kill whomever is necessary, lead to his downfall.

`1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5... + n = (n(n + 1))/2` Use mathematical induction to prove the formula for every positive integer n.

You need to use mathematical induction to prove the formula for every positive integer n, hence, you need to perform the two steps of the method, such that:

Step 1: Basis: Show that the statement P(n) hold for n = 1, such that:

`1 = 1(1+1)/2 => 1 = 1*2/2 => 1=1`

Step 2: Inductive step: Show that if P(k) holds, then also P(k + 1) holds:

`P(k): 1 + 2 + .. + k = (k(k+1))/2` holds

`P(k+1): 1 + 2 + ... + k + (k+1) = ((k+1)(k+2))/2`

You need to use induction hypothesis that P(k) holds, hence, you need to re-write the left side, such that:

 `(k(k+1))/2 + k + 1 = ((k+1)(k+2))/2`

`k(k+1) + 2k + 2 = k^2 + 2k + k + 2`

`k^2 + k + 2k + 2 = k^2 + 2k + k + 2`

Notice that P(k+1) holds.

Hence, since both the basis and the inductive step have been verified, by mathematical induction, the statement `P(n): 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = (n(n+1))/2`  holds for all positive integers n.

What is an objective summary of the Prologue in Romeo and Juliet?

The Prologue to Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet simply tells the audience what will happen in the play. It immediately reveals the ending by telling the audience, 

A pair of star-crossed lovers take their life

Before that, it informs the audience that the Montagues and Capulets are equal in their importance in Verona ("Two households both alike in dignity"). They are involved in a longtime feud. Shakespeare never tells us why they are fighting but the feud is "ancient" and sometimes the innocent citizens of Verona are also caught up in the violence ("civil blood"). It proclaims that the Montague and Capulet children will be involved. They are "star-crossed", indicating fate has conspired against them, and their deaths are pre-ordained. Only their demise will ultimately end the rivalry ("Which, but their children’s end, naught could remove").

In the final three lines Shakespeare tells us it will take two hours for this story to be told (a dubious claim since it takes at least three if everything is included). He indicates the audience should listen closely ("with patient ears attend") to his story. This is important because Shakespeare's story is not so much about plot, but about the words he uses to spin his tale. Moreover, he tells the audience if there's anything he's missed in the  Prologue, he will work hard to fill in those gaps in the overall telling ("our toil shall strive to mend"). 

The Prologue is also a Shakespearean sonnet in its construction. It is written in iambic pentameter (five stressed and five unstressed syllables per line) and rhymes ababcdcdefefgg. Fourteen lines with alternating rhymes and a couplet at the end. 

When Scout is lectured by Calpurnia about her table manners, Calpurnia tells her that she is a disgrace to her family. What does she mean by this?

In chapter three, Jem invites young Walter Cunningham over for lunch on the first day of school in an effort to make peace after Scout roughs him up in the school yard. While at lunch, Walter asks for maple syrup and then pours it all over his vegetables and meat. Scout freaks out by asking very excitedly what the "sam hill" he was doing (24). Walter becomes embarrassed and Calpurnia pulls Scout into the kitchen for a lecture. Calpurnia strongly explains that Scout's job as a hostess is to allow her guest to do whatever he wants. Being a good hostess means not making a guest feel uncomfortable in any way. Specifically, Calpurnia says the following:

"Don't matter who they are, anybody sets foot in this house's yo' comp'ny, and don't you let me catch you remarkin' on their ways like you was so high and mighty! Yo' folks might be better'n the Cunninghams but it don't count for nothing' the way you're disgracin' 'em--if you can't act fit to eat at the table you can just set here and eat in the kitchen!" (25).

First of all, Calpurnia doesn't say that Scout is a disgrace, she says that by the way Scout is acting, she is disgracing the Finch name and reputation. In a way, Scout is dishonoring her parents by not showing more respect to Walter who is a guest in their home. Calpurnia, in her own way, is saying that just because the Finch family might be socially and economically better off than someone else, it doesn't account for anything honorable if she can't act with compassion and grace. Another way to say it is for people who have a lot of opportunity and fortune in life, they aren't worth much if they can't also be kind and graceful to others who are socially and economically "beneath" them. 

What did the family have to do in order for Gabriel to be allowed a second year of nurturing?

In chapter one, during the sharing of feelings time, Jonas's father tells his family of a new child he is worried about. The baby hasn't developed as he should by this point in his young life and the Nurturing Committee is thinking about releasing him. Jonas's father is thinking about asking the committee if he can try to improve the little boy's sleeping patterns and weight by bringing him home for special nurturing time at nights. Lily asks if they could probably keep him and Mother jumps in with, "You know the rules. . . Two children--one male, one female--to each family unit. It was written very clearly in the rules" (8). Since the family can't adopt him, they may be able to help him through a probationary time if Jonas's father gets permission by the committee.

Once father does get permission by chapter six, there are some rules attached to the responsibility. The baby, Gabriel, is first labeled uncertain. Then each family member, even Lily, must sign a document and pledge that he or she will not become attached to the baby during the year's reprieve. Finally, when it comes time to assign him to another family, each person in Jonas's family must agree the he or she will not appeal the action or protest in any way. Once everyone is on board and in agreement, Gabriel is allowed to come home with father each night for one more year. 

Examine Rousseau's attempt to bring about a reconciliation between liberty and authority.

Jean Jacques Rousseau's most influential work, The Social Contract (1762), opens with his famous phrase "Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains." Rousseau's ideas went against the grain of his Enlightenment contemporaries, who believed man is born a savage, and in his natural state is always selfish and instinctually self-interested. 100 years prior to Rousseau, the British philosopher Thomas Hobbes declared life in this 'natural' state was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." (Leviathan 1651) The common thinking of many scholars of Rousseau's time was that this primitive human needed government and civil society to tame and restrict the 'natural' inclinations toward chaos, violence, and a self-serving morality.

Rousseau turned this thinking on its head and asserted that it is civilized life that corrupts a primitive human, who is born essentially innocent, happy and independent (Man is born free). In this original liberated state of freedom man is virtuous and has compassion and empathy. As man became more sophisticated, the idea of private property was introduced—imagine the first person to put a fence around a piece of land and call it 'Mine'; these landowners  started to form societies to protect their property, and thus laws were written to do just that. Rousseau views these laws as unjust, selfish, and inflicted by the rich on the poor. Law removes man from his state of innocence and forces him toward vice and misery; he loses his essential connection to nature.

Authority that guarantees and reconciles with liberty can only come from all of the people, not just property owners. Rousseau envisioned an alternate society run by all citizens, rather than one dictated by churches, kings, and the aristocracy. He imagines the citizen body operating together as a unit to create laws that come from everyone (the general will) and that apply to everyone; all people are considered equal. This freedom to participate in the legislative process that creates authority would have a beneficial effect on society as a whole. It could eliminate inequality and injustice, and promote a feeling of belonging to a society rather than having one imposed from above. Rousseau claimed that his idea of a just civilization would lead to "liberty, equality, fraternity" (his words that later became the rallying cry for the French Revolution, about 30 years after he wrote The Social Contract). Authority is only legitimate if it protects the freedom of all people.

Rousseau's ideas made most of their impact during the time of revolutions immediately after his death. But Karl Marx, about 100 years after Rousseau, was influenced by his work on injustice and inequality. Marx's Communist Manifesto (1848) ends with his declaration that the workers of the world should unite because "they have nothing to lose but their chains." That sounds familiar. 

What are Calpurnia and Portia's attitudes toward their husbands in Julius Caesar?

Both Portia and Calpurnia feel that their husbands undervalue their advice. 

Portia and Calpurnia are both strong women. Neither woman is willing to sit back and let her husband make decisions without interference. Each of them fears for her husband, and to a certain extent both of them should. Calpurnia worries her husband is in danger, and Portia worries her husband is up to something. 

Portia is Marcus Brutus’s wife.  She notices that he seems to be staying up late a lot and he hasn’t told her what is on his mind.  She asks him to tell her what is going on, and he is dismissive toward her. She begs him to let her in on what he is planning. 

I should not need, if you were gentle Brutus.
Within the bond of marriage, tell me, Brutus,
Is it excepted I should know no secrets
That appertain to you? (Act 2, Scene 1) 

Portia can’t help but notice that a bunch of people showed up at her house secretly in the middle of the night. Since Brutus won’t tell her what is going on, Calpurnia has him followed. She determines that he is involved in a conspiracy to assassinate Caesar, and secretly prays for him because there is nothing she can actually do to help.  

Although Brutus survives the plot to assassinate Caesar, his attempts at governance do not go as well. Brutus’s absence from Rome and the stress of the war prove too much for Portia. Always a fiery woman, she commits suicide.  Supposedly, she “swallow'd fire” (Act 4, Scene 3). 

Calpurnia is Julius Caesar’s wife. We already know she is barren, something that bothers Caesar and likely caused her great shame. She acquiesces nonetheless when Caesar asks her to stand in Mark Antony’s path during the Feast of Lupercal race. This is supposed to make her fertile. 

The soothsayer warned Caesar to beware the Ides of March.  That night, Calpurnia had a dream that she interpreted as prophetic. The dream made her believe Caesar was in danger. She also shares a series of supposedly bad omens: 

Caesar, I never stood on ceremonies,
Yet now they fright me. There is one within,
Besides the things that we have heard and seen,
Recounts most horrid sights seen by the watch.
A lioness hath whelped in the streets;
And graves have yawn'd, and yielded up their dead … (Act 2, Scene 2)

Calpurnia actually almost succeeds in getting Caesar to stay home on the Ides of March. However, the conspirators planned for this eventuality. They sent Decius Brutus there to convince Caesar to come. To convince Caesar, Decius Brutus reinterpreted Calpurnia’s dream of citizens bathing their hands in Caesar’s blood as a positive sign. He also made it seem like Caesar would be either cowardly or ungrateful if he did not come.

Why are modern landfills lined with plastic or clay?

Modern landfills are lined with clay or plastic to prevent leachate from seeping into the ground. Leachate is runoff from garbage dumps that contains chemicals and other wastes. Without a liner, this waste may be able to seep into the ground and enter the groundwater. If the waste reached the groundwater, the waste could contaminate the drinking water and make people and/or other organisms ill. Likewise, the soil could become polluted in nearby areas. This would be disadvantageous to the organisms that inhabited to such areas.

Neither clay nor plastic garbage dump liners work perfectly. Additionally, clay can be degraded by some chemicals. Similarly, some chemicals can degrade plastics and/or make the plastics brittle. Degradation of the clay or plastic liners is concerning because the weakened liners become cracked and/or may allow the toxic leachate to seep through.

What is the derivatives market?

Derivatives are a type of financial instruments or securities that do not have any value on their own.  Their value comes from (is derived from) the value of some other thing.  The derivatives market is the market in which people buy and sell derivatives.

Derivatives do not include things like stocks in companies, barrels of oil, or mortgages on houses.  These things have value on their own.  Instead, derivatives are securities that are based on those types of things that have inherent value.  One example of a derivative would be a futures contract.  Imagine that you and I agree on a futures contract in oil.  Our contract specifies that I will deliver a certain amount of oil to you on a specific date that is relatively far in the future.  It says how much you will pay for the oil on that date.  In general, I am betting that the price of oil will drop between now and then while you are betting that it will go up.  That futures contract is a derivative.  It has value because it is worth (depending on what you think the price of oil will do) the opportunity to buy the oil at the specified price or the opportunity to sell the oil at that price.  However, its value is based on the value of the oil itself, not on the inherent value of the contract.

The derivatives market is the market in which people buy and sell these financial instruments.  You might, for example, decide that you made a bad deal or you might simply want to make some cash now and so you decide to sell the contract to someone else.  They will buy because they believe that the price of oil will go up in the future.  People can and do buy and sell these types of contracts all the time.  These transactions make up the derivatives market.

What was the political and economic transformation that began in the United States in the late 18th century?

In the late 18th century and early 19th century, the U.S. began to undergo what is generally called the "Market Revolution," in which new modes of transportation facilitated and expedited the transfer of goods to markets. Transportation networks in the eastern and mid-western (then the western) U.S. developed, including canals, railroads, and steamboats. These means of transportation, such as the Erie Canal in New York (which connected Albany to Lake Erie), connected the eastern and western parts of the U.S. Raw materials from farms in the west could easily be shipped to production centers in the east. This meant that the eastern and western parts of the country were developing capitalist economies, and they were also becoming more connected politically. 

However, the south largely did not develop these types of transportation networks (except steamboats), and the south did not industrialize except in a select few cities such as New Orleans but stayed committed to slavery. For example, the south had far less mileage of railroad tracks than the north and west. As a result, the south was dependent on finished goods from the north or imported goods from Europe, and the south started to become more and more disconnected from other parts of the country politically as well. 

What is the setting of The Devil's Arithmetic by Jane Yolen in Chapters One and Two?

There are two aspects of setting that can be discussed:  setting of time and setting of place.  In Chapters One and Two of The Devil’s Arithmetic, the setting of time is the present day.  Because the book was published in the 1980s, we can safely say that is the time of the story in these first chapters.  In regards to the setting of place, this changes a bit within Chapters One and Two.  We could be very simple about it and say the setting is in the state of New York in the United States of America.  However, at the beginning, Hannah and her immediate family are in New Rochelle, New York.  Soon they are en route.  By Chapter Two, they are in the Bronx, New York.  Hannah’s family is preparing (at their own home in New Rochelle) to drive to Grandma Belle's and Grandpa Will’s apartment in the Bronx to observe the Seder meal on the first night of Passover.  They are en route during the drive when Hannah tells the story of the “walking dead” to her brother.  They are at the Bronx apartment (in later chapters) when Hannah’s experience with the Holocaust begins.

What is Ophelia’s physical description of Hamlet?

Ophelia describes Hamlet as having been very disheveled and frightening looking.

Ophelia is in love with Hamlet, and he was supposedly in love with her.  However, he has been acting very strange lately.  His behavior frightens Ophelia.  She describes to Polonius how she saw Hamlet when she was sewing.  He appeared very distracted, his clothes were disorderly, and his behavior was erratic.

Lord Hamlet, with his doublet all unbraced;
No hat upon his head; his stockings foul'd,
Ungarter'd, and down-gyved to his ancle;
Pale as his shirt; his knees knocking each other;
And with a look so piteous in purport
As if he had been loosed out of hell … (Act 2, Scene 1)

Of course, Hamlet is playing with Ophelia.  It is sad really.  He needs her to sell his crazy act.  She bought it completely.  In case she wasn't really convinced, he also dumped her with the most offensive and demeaning break-up speech ever. 

Get thee to a nunnery: why wouldst thou be a
breeder of sinners? I am myself indifferent honest;
but yet I could accuse me of such things that it
were better my mother had not borne me: I am very
proud, revengeful, ambitious, with more offences at
my beck than I have thoughts to put them in … (Act 3, Scene 1)

Ophelia doesn’t understand what is wrong with him or what she might have done to deserve this harsh treatment.  He must have always seemed like a sincere and upstanding youth before.  She described him that way.  However she is probably starting to believe the advice her brother Laertes gave her when he told her that Hamlet would betray her honor and then move on.

He messes with her again during the play when he says terrible things to her, further convincing her and anyone else who may be listening that he is completely mad.  He wants to get Claudius to confess to King Hamlet's murder. Ophelia is just the means to an end.  She is collateral damage.

You are at the end of your fiscal year, and it is important to your donors that your books are in balance (i.e. no deficit) for the year in...

This is the sort of ethical dilemma that arises in business all the time. This case is interesting because you're not a for-profit corporation simply trying to make money, but a charitable nonprofit that presumably has some sort of social mission.

If you clear the invoice, you will ensure that your nonprofit appears solvent, and the increased donations next year may even make your nonprofit solvent. Since you could pass the audit and have no official reason to know that the invoice will not be paid, you may not even be committing fraud under the law.

And yet, morally, you are clearly lying. You are defrauding your donors, in at least an ethical sense, if not a legal one. You know that the invoice won't be paid, and so by telling them that it will, you are being deceptive.

It could still be justifiable to clear the invoice; many utilitarian ethicists would argue that because your nonprofit does good for the world, you won't get caught, and you will eventually make up the financial deficit, it is justified for you to commit this small act of fraud for the greater good of ensuring the ongoing effectiveness of your nonprofit. That is why it is important that you are not a for-profit corporation; if you were, you clearly ought to honestly take the losses and pass them to your shareholders, as that's how capitalism is supposed to work. But as a nonprofit, the consequences of your actions will ultimately fall upon the people you're helping in your social mission, and it does seem unfair that they should suffer because of this bounced invoice.

Still, most deontologists and even nuanced utilitarians (full disclosure: I consider myself the latter, a nuanced utilitarian) would argue that this act of fraud is wrong, that it is against your fiduciary responsibility as the manager of the nonprofit. Your job is to report the finances of the organization honestly to the donors, and by clearing an invoice you know will not be paid, you are shirking that responsibility. The long-run consequences of a system where people feel free to fudge finances as long as they perceive it to be for a greater good would be disastrous; they would essentially undermine the integrity of our entire financial system. Your heart may be in the right place, but if you clear that check, you're pushing us one step closer to a world of Enrons.

How is First Purchase different from the children’s church?

Calpurnia's church, First Purchase African M.E. Church, was not as privileged as the church Jem and Scout were used to. We get this impression first based on its "ancient" appearance on the outside, with peeling paint. The cemetery featured crumbling headstones and Coca Cola bottles for markers, with ground so hard that bodies had to wait to be buried if the rain was sparse. It was unlike the other churches in Maycomb because it was the only one with a steeple and a bell. It was only used for worship on Sundays. During the week, white people used it as a gambling hall, showing how deep the disrespect and disregard for colored people ran. 

Once inside, Scout found there was no ceiling, paint, piano, organ, church programs, or hymn-books. The only decoration was a banner that read "God is Love". The church members compensated for their lack of books, and literacy, by singing their hymns by "lining", where Zeebo (one of the few who could read) read out hymn line-by-line with the congregation singing after him. Scout observed that the sermon was the same, except that the reverend referred to specific people who needed to be prayed for or that had recently sinned. The collection was taken not by passing a plate, but by each person coming to the front and dropping their coins into a can. A major surprise came when Reverend Sykes counted out the offering in front of everyone and wouldn’t let anyone leave until they had donated enough for Helen Robinson to have ten dollars. 

Why is the information carrying capacity of DNA almost unlimited?

DNA is composed of pairs of four bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). Each base pair can be described using the following "2 bit" combinations: 00, 01, 10, and 11. A single byte or 8 bits would represent four DNA base pairs. 

Therefore, the entire diploid DNA in a single cell could code for 1.5 gigabytes of information. Using an estimate of 100 trillion diploid cells in a human body, the amount of information that could be stored in the DNA of a human body would be 150 zettabytes (`~10^21` ).

As of 2011, there was an estimated 1.8 zettabytes of data in the entire world. This means that all of the data that existed in the world as of 2011 could be stored in about one teaspoon of DNA. 

Why do you think Steinbeck spends so much of the narration talking about what a kind person Lennie is?

Steinbeck is at pains to show the reader what a kind and simple person Lennie is because a central plot point is his killing of Curley's wife. Steinbeck wants the reader to understand clearly that the murder was accidental: Lennie has no malice and never wished to hurt Curley's wife. Steinbeck wants to raise our empathy for Lennie: he is a person caught up in a situation he can't fully understand. It's hard on him as a person with a mental disability having to lead the wandering, migrant life he does, as he constantly has to adjust to new and potentially confusing situations. Sometimes in these circumstances, Steinbeck says, bad things happen to good people. Tragically, because Lennie is so far at the bottom of the class ladder, he will never get a fair hearing. George kills him to spare him a worse fate. 

In the poem "The Blue Bowl" by Jane Kenyon, what would the rhyme scheme be? Is there a rhyme scheme?

It is true that there are no end rhymes in this poem, nor is there any discernible metrical pattern.  The poem therefore is indeed free verse, although you are correct in noting that there are a couple rhyming pairs.  There are the words “bowl” and “hole” in the first four lines, and “toes” and “nose” a few lines later.  It would be safe to say that these words constitute two instances of internal rhyme, words found within the body of a line that rhyme with each other, rather than a traditional end-word rhyming pattern.  This gives a poem an extra layer of verbal harmony, and displaces the traditional end-heavy focus found in traditional poetry.  This poem has a further disruption, as well,  made possible by the interesting free verse structure.  By ending phrases in the middle of lines we do not read the poem as we typically would, from  line to line, each one encompassing a single thought.  Rather, we read it more as a continuous story.  By breaking up the structure of the poem in this way, Kenyon is playing with the definition of the poem itself. 

In addition, something worth noting is that, had each line of the poem been dedicated to a full phrase, these rhyming pairs would be caught at the ends of their lines.  However, as it has been arranged, the poem has them placed internally.  By doing this Kenyon has avoided all end rhyme; there is therefore no true scheme for the poem, but two isolated examples of an internal device.

What is so unusual about Doodle?

Lots of things are unusual about Doodle, but probably the easiest unusual trait to identify deals with his physical features. Doodle was born with a physical disability. In fact, most people did not think that Doodle would survive very long after birth.  

He was born when I was six and was, from the outset, a disappointment. He seemed all head, with a tiny body which was red and shriveled like an old man's. Everybody thought he was going to die—everybody except Aunt Nicey, who had delivered him.

It is likely that in addition to his physical disabilities, Doodle has a mental disability. His mother tends to think so, but his brother (the narrator) does not believe so—or he chooses to ignore that possibility altogether, because he vows to help Doodle reach his full potential and be like any other little brother.

I feel, however, that what makes Doodle so unusual is his personality. He does know that he is different because of his physical disabilities, but that doesn't let him stop loving life and playing with his brother. In fact Doodle would do just about anything to earn the acceptance of his brother, and he would do it with a cheerful heart. Doodle has every reason to be angry at the world, but he isn't, and that is why I think Doodle is such an amazing and unusual character.

Should solitary confinement be banned in the United States Jails and Prison System?

Although solitary confinement for some very disruptive and dangerous convicts (particularly drug cartel and hate group leaders) can cut down on violence inside prison populations, the practice of keeping numerous prisoners in solitary confinement for long periods of time (or indefinitely) has been shown to be both unconstitutional (cruel and unusual) and counterproductive to decreasing violence and recidivism.

While there remains a subset of highly violent inmates within maximum security prisons, and while even low risk prisoners can from time to time need a "cooling off period" in order to prevent reprisals and riots, most studies of long term solitary confinement show that prisoners come out of solitary more mentally unbalanced, more prone to violence, and less able to lead a normal, productive life once they finish serving their sentences.

Therefore, while short term stays in solitary confinement (one or two days) may be appropriate for certain prisoners under certain conditions, the use of solitary confinement as a long term option for prisoners should most definitely be banned. Not only can clever inmates put in solitary to prevent them from sending orders to their lieutenants in the outside word find a way to send messages and rule their organizations from within solitary, but violent offenders with mental illnesses who are segregated from the rest of the prison population have been found to become even more delusional and unstable in the absence of treatment and other human contact. 

Many guards and wardens argue that the increased use of solitary confinement as a means of prison population control reduces gang violence, riots and retributions in prisons and cuts down on the death of prison guards. While that may be true (although many studies have disputed this argument), the bigger issue is overcrowding of prisons and jails. If our jails and prisons were not so overcrowded, prison guards would not need to take such extreme measures to control those populations. Indeed, over the past thirty years, the homicide rate and the rate of violent crimes nationally has plummeted, yet prison populations have skyrocketed. So to argue that prison populations are inherently more violent than they used to be and consequently require harsher tactics like prolonged solitary confinement to keep order, is a specious argument, not supported by facts.

Finally, as mentioned above, the negative effects of solitary confinement on mental health are so great that many prisoners who get "thrown in the hole," as solitary is known, for increasingly minor infractions, come out more dangerous and unstable than when they went in.

In short, solitary confinement as a long term solution should never have been allowed, and should be banned immediately. The ethical and practical reasons against it far outweigh the supposed benefits.

Describe how A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce is a study of the conditions of the development of an artist.

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce is chiefly concerned with describing the development of Stephen Dedalus not only as a young man, but also as a writer and an artist. In many ways, the narrative is a quintessential example of the bildungsoman, a story that tells of the growth and maturation of a character and that often functions as a coming-of-age tale. In addition to describing his family life and his spiritual development, the narrative focuses on Stephen's growing consciousness as a writer, chronicling his formation of an artistic philosophy and aesthetic.

Additionally (and more importantly) the narrative style mirrors Stephen's development. When Stephen is a young child, the narrative is written to resemble the thought processes of a child. Later on, when Stephen is a mature intellectual attending college, the writing style has also matured to reflect this change. Thus, the artistic style of the novel parallels (and, by extension, illustrates) Stephen's development as an artist. In this way, Joyce gives us a radical account of the conditions for artistic development, and the novel remains an example of innovation despite its age (having been published in 1916, Portrait recently turned 100). 

How does Winnie’s talk with Miles when they go fishing relate to her earlier talk with Angus in Tuck Everlasting?

Winnie discusses the downsides of immortality and why everything needs to die someday with Angus and Miles.

The Tuck family is immortal.  Winnie stays with them while they explain to her how they became immortal and why she should not drink the water and become immortal herself.  She has conversations about immortality with both Angus and Miles.

Angus explains to Winnie that being immortal is not all it’s cracked up to be.  When you are immortal and no one else in the world is, you are not fully experiencing life.

That's what us Tucks are, Winnie. Stuck so's we can't move on. We ain't part of the wheel no more. Dropped off, Winnie. Left behind. And everywhere around us, things is moving and growing and changing. (Ch. 12) 

If Winnie were to drink from the spring, she would become stuck too.  She would be a little girl forever.  It would be the same problem that Miles has, and especially Jesse, because when you are a child forever you really miss out on important things in life.

Winnie tells Miles that she wishes nothing had to die.  Miles, who can’t die, explains to her that there is a reason for death.

"Well, now, I don't know," said Miles. "If you think on it, you come to see there'd be so many creatures, including people, we'd all be squeezed in right up next to each other before long." (Ch. 17)

Miles tells Winnie that things kill and die.  This is the natural way.  When they catch a fish, she makes him put it back.  He understands why she does not want to see the fish die.  She still wants to believe that everything can live forever, even though she knows why it shouldn’t.

Miles tells Winnie that he wants to do something important eventually.  She understands this sentiment.  Miles has all the time in the world, and he wants to make it matter.  Winnie wants to become someone.  Before she was “kidnapped” she wanted to go on an adventure.  Now she has had one.