What would be a suitable essay topic for the first chapter of Ehrenreich's Nickel and Dimed, "Serving in Florida"?

To avoid simply summarizing the chapter, I think you could easily pull out a theme that appears heavily in this chapter and that you will find reoccurring throughout this text. For instance, you could write about how Ehrenreich must face some harsh realities about poverty in this first chapter. She begins her job search thinking she can pick and choose from among the low-wage jobs she knows of; she starts out remembering her waitressing experiences as a teenager and thinks this is the one job she does not want. Of course, this is the one she ends up having to take. She also begins her experiment believing she will have no problem finding a job paying $7 per hour and being able to find a place to rent for $500-$600 per month; she is unsuccessful at both. She sees others at her restaurant job suffer fears of deportation, struggle with homelessness, and live with a myriad of other difficulties that all stem from poverty.

This chapter is a hard dose of the reality that Ehrenreich thought she already knew. I think centering your essay around the misconceptions that she had going into her experiment would make a great framework.

What are the uses of a beaker and a tripod?

Beaker and tripod are commonly used equipment in a chemistry lab.

A beaker is a cylindrical piece of equipment and is made of glass. It has a flat bottom and graduations on its side. Beakers are so called because they have a small beak or spout, for pouring liquids, on the rim. They come in various sizes, such as 50 ml, 100 ml, 250 ml, 500 ml, 1000 ml, etc. Beakers are commonly used for mixing various liquids. Another application of beakers is in heating liquids. This is accomplished by placing the beaker over a tripod stand with a Bunsen burner underneath it.

A tripod is a three-legged (and hence the name) laboratory equipment commonly used for heating liquid contained in a glassware (such as beaker, conical flask, etc.). They are also used for storing (temporarily) any glassware containing hot liquids.

Hope this helps. 

Who loved Juliet more—Romeo or Paris?

Though the answer might seem obvious at first glance, debating whether Romeo or Paris loved Juliet more in William Shakespeare's Romeo & Juliet is a complicated question. Many may believe that Paris's love for Juliet cannot be greater than Romeo's because he wishes for an arranged marriage. Yet, in fact, Paris's love was greater than Romeo's.

Peel away the romance, and Romeo and Juliet is a story about family. Though the play informs the audience of Romeo and Juliet's death in the very first scene, the marriage of the two 'star-crossed lovers' is a glimmer of hope that the feud between the Montagues and Capulets will end. Two warring families will become one. Yet Romeo kills Tybalt, his brother-in-law, spurring the story towards its deadly conclusion. Though it is understandable that Romeo would be in a rage over the murder of his friend, Mercutio, he makes no attempt to tell Tybalt about his marriage or spare Tybalt's life during the fight. If Romeo cannot love Juliet's family, just how strong is his love for Juliet? 

Though Paris appears only a handful of times throughout the play, his death at the hands of Romeo proves his love for Juliet. For starters, the scene begins with Paris visiting the Capulet tomb in order to see the body of Juliet. His soliloquy suggests that he will return each night to weep. When Romeo appears, Romeo instigates the violence that leads to Paris's death. Dying, Paris pleads that Romeo bury him with Juliet. Though this scene is overshadowed by the deaths of Romeo and Juliet moments later in the play, Paris's death gives us a clear view of the love he felt for Juliet.

What world events occurred while the German Graf Zeppelin made its world tour?

The Graf Zeppelin left New Jersey in its quest to circumnavigate the globe on August 8th and returned on August 29th. This was the fastest circumnavigation of the globe in human history. In many respects, the event can be seen as the final achievement of the Roaring Twenties before the misery of the Great Depression would descend on the world. It was the last of many technological feats from the decade that saw the introduction of radio stations and television, the flight of Charles Lindbergh across the Atlantic Ocean, and liquid fueled rockets.

The most significant event that happened while the zeppelin was in the air occurred in Palestine as Jews and Palestinians quarreled over control of the Western Wall. The violence resulted in two Jewish massacres and the expulsion of Jews from Hebron. The 1929 Palestine Riots resulted in nearly 250 deaths.

The zeppelin was in the air at a time that the stock market was nearing a crash. Less than a week after the flight ended, the Dow Jones reached an all-time high. The market would crash in late October, plunging the United States into a prolonged economic depression. The stock market crash would have repercussions around the world, destroying an already struggling global economy. For this reason, the trip of the Graf Zeppelin was a final achievement of the decade of American prosperity that was the 1920's.

Is there a concise way to sum up the paradigm shift in the form of poetry throughout English literature's development (i.e. is there a parallel to...

One of the main differences between English literature and classical literature is that while ancient writers started from oral tradition, literature in England rests on a foundation of knowledge of the classics. English readers and writers were familiar with classical epic, drama, lyric poetry, and novels and were influenced by those models, especially in the early modern period.

Our earliest works of English poetry include oral-traditional works such as Beowulf that were influenced by Norse sagas and similar epic poetry. From this period, we also have preserved lyric poems found in the Exeter Book, practical gnomic and mnemonic verse, religious poems, and Anglo-Saxon riddles. The Norman conquest brought with it much of the Arthurian tradition and lyric poems within the context of courtly romance. In the English vernacular, religious literature also flourished, including traditions of mystery and miracle plays and long religious and secular poems such as those of Chaucer and Gower.

The early modern period brought a rediscovery of the classical tradition and deep connections with European humanism. Elizabethan theater included tragedies, comedies and plays in mixed genres while poets wrote both longer poems such as The Faerie Queen and shorter lyrical works, including many iconic sonnets. In the Jacobean period, metaphysical poetry was a major innovation. The novel also began in with translations and imitations of ancient novels but grew to include many of the great works of the new spirit of bourgeois individualism of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

In addition to the novel, Augustan poetry and Restoration comedy were among the most important genres of the eighteenth century, which was a great age of satire. The Gothic novel marks the transition to the nineteenth century. Nineteenth-century literary movements ranged from Romanticism through realism, naturalism, and decadence. 

Overall, I don't see there being one single paradigm shift or single trajectory, but rather many different types of innovation and shifts in taste. 

In The Catcher and the Rye, how does Holden’s discussion about his interaction with a potential “glove thief” foreshadow what happens in the...

Chapter 13 is when Holden imagines confronting a potential glove thief. First, remember that Holden has his red hunting hat on during this imaginative scene because he seems to always act with more confidence while wearing it. The scene that Holden imagines with the glove thief shows him confidently asking for the gloves, searching the room, and finding them in a pair of galoshes. Then the thief gets in Holden's face and asks if he's calling him a thief. At that point, Holden admits that he would want to punch the guy, but he would actually slowly cower in front of the guy. Holden says the scene would end as follows:

"I'd leave his room without even taking a sock at him. I'd probably go down to the can and sneak a cigarette and watch myself getting tough in the mirror . . . It's no fun to be yellow" (89).

This scene does seem to foreshadow Holden's experience with Sunny, the prostitute at the end of the chapter. He acts all confident before she shows up at his room, but once she's ready to do her job, he backs down. As a result, he seems to offend her, so she says that the deal was $10 not $5 that he gave her for her time to just talk with him, and she leaves calling him a "crumb-bum."

But that's not all because in chapter 14 Sunny returns with her pimp to steal the extra $5 from Holden. The encounter with the pimp also seems to mirror the same scenario as the one with the glove thief. Holden must stand up to a phony who wants to steal something from him and who has more power and control over the situation. Consequently, he gets roughed up a bit and gets the extra $5 taken from him. The glove thief scenario certainly sets up the scenes with the prostitute, and later with her pimp, so the reader gets an example of how Holden really would react in similar situations. Too bad Holden wasn't wearing his red hunting hat with Sunny and her pimp because he may have confronted it with more confidence.

How is language used to exert power in The Merchant of Venice by Shakespeare?

In The Merchant of Venice, language relates to power in a number of ways. Shylock is an example of a person who understands how to wield language to exert strength. When he talks to Bassanio about lending money, he repeats Bassanio’s phrases. This tactic buys him time to think and frustrates Bassanio, putting the man he is to negotiate with on edge. Shylock also sometimes talks at length and in detail, possibly to confuse others. For example, instead of saying that money on the sea is not safe, he says the following:

But ships are but boards, sailors but men: there be land-rats and water-rats, water-thieves and land-thieves, I mean pirates, and then there is the peril of waters, winds and rocks.

The description is rather poetic. His way of speaking is so distinct that it sets him apart from other characters, which is fitting considering he is Jewish and they are Christian. On the one hand, this different kind of speech gives him an advantage because it makes him unpredictable. On the other hand, his status as a Jewish “alien” makes him a victim of those who hold political power.

Antisemitic insults are another way in which words exert power in the play. Shylock gives as good as he gets in terms of verbal abuse, but others simply have to say the word “Jew” with disdain to dismiss Shylock’s entire identity. Several people refer to Shylock as “the devil,” a word that conjures up the most extreme of malevolent figures. Shylock expresses anger at having been called “misbeliever, cut-throat dog” by Antonio. These attempts to demean Shylock only enrage him.

Finally, logic, language, and law are intertwined at the end of The Merchant of Venice. Shylock’s justification for cutting out a pound of Antonio’s flesh has a twisted logic to it, and it is in line with the law. However, Portia finds a loophole in the language, specifying that the legal bond allows a pound of flesh but “no jot of blood.” Shylock’s words could have killed Antonio, while Portia’s set him free. This is the power of language in the play.

Atticus says, “Jem, see if you can stand in Bob Ewell’s shoes a minute. I destroyed his last shred of credibility at that trial, if he had any...

The Golden rule is "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." In To Kill a Mocking Bird, Atticus practices the Golden Rule when he does not retaliate when Bob Ewell spits in his face. During the trial Bob Ewell verbally attacks Atticus for exposing Ewell’s cruelty to his own children. Atticus shreds Bob Ewell's credibility and Ewell threatens Atticus' life. Atticus does not retaliate when threatened. Atticus treats Bob Ewell the way he would want to be treated. Atticus is a perfect example of a strong person who has self-control. He exhibits courage and good character by saying nothing in return to Ewell's threatening comments. Atticus cares more about Ewell's children than Bob Ewell does himself. He would rather Ewell take out his anger on himself rather than taking it out on Mayella. Atticus is a prime example of a decent gentleman who does unto Ewell as he would have Ewell do unto him. Through his example of good character even when threatened, Atticus teaches his own children to be good citizens as he treats others the way he would want to be treated. Scout and Jem watch and learn and become honorable people in the small southern community. Atticus is an excellent parent who has integrity and and decency in all of his actions whether public or private.   

Are Emerson's "The Rhodora" and Whitman's "A Noiseless Patient Spider" similar in terms of their ideas?

There are quite a few similarities in Emerson’s “The Rhodora” and Whitman’s “A Noiseless Patient Spider”.  

The first I noticed was the sense of discovery within the speaker. Each speaker has an awareness of encountering a larger, more transcendental idea contained within the small body of the spider and the flower.  In Whitman, it was “I mark’d where on a little promontory it stood isolated” (line 2) and in Emerson it was “when the sea-winds pierced our solitudes,/ I found the fresh Rhodora in the woods/spreading its leafless blooms” (line 2-4). Whitman encountered the transcendent idea of the soul’s longing to be connected contained within the body of the spider. Emerson encountered the idea of the beauty that dwells in being. Though it was only a simple encounter, he found the undefinable quality of being and beauty contained within the flower and within the moment itself. Both poems also create a similar kind of moment of encounter for the reader. As the speaker encounters the object, the reader encounters the poem in a similar way. We happen upon the poem in the solitude of reading.

Another similarity within the two poems is the existential questioning and how the object encountered came to symbolize that. For Whitman, the existential desire is oriented around the idea of connection. The spider in Whitman’s poem is shown pulling “filament” (line 4) from itself and casting it to create a spider web. The speaker commands his own soul to do something similar, sending out “the gossamer thread you fling” (line 10). The speaker hopes the lines he sends forth will not only create a kind of web, but one that will connect him to a meaning more powerful than himself. In the same way that the spider sought to “explore the vacant vast surrounding” (line 3), the speaker seeks “the measureless oceans of space” to be connected by the filaments of his own soul.

For Emerson, the existential question is a similar kind of desire for an interconnectedness of moments or fate.  This is revealed within the last four lines of the poem. The speaker questions what it was that brought the flower into the same moment in “why thou wert there…/ I never thought to ask; I never knew” (line 14-15), recognizing the serendipity of the encounter.  The speaker recognized his own path. But because the flower is Other, the speaker will never be able to know the moments that led it to that same moment. He wonders if there was an external power that led them both into that moment by claiming “the self-same power that brought me there, brought you” (line 17). And despite never quite comprehending that power, the speaker felt its presence. It was enough for him to feel that power through the encounter with the flower. 

The story "A Rose for Emily" features several symbols. Identify one and explain its significance to the plot.

Four symbols in "A Rose for Emily" are the watch she wears, the taxes she doesn't pay, the crayon portrait of her father, and the lime the aldermen spread around her house.

On one of the few occasions when the aldermen actually meet Emily in her home, she appears wearing "a thin gold chain descending to her waist and vanishing into her belt." Later it is revealed that there is an invisible watch ticking at the end of the chain. This symbolizes Emily's refusal to acknowledge the passing of time. It still exists—it keeps ticking—but she keeps it hidden, just as she refuses to pay taxes despite a new era in town, and as she refuses to acknowledge that the time of her romance with Homer Barron has ended.

The fact that Emily doesn't pay taxes in town and the new government can't get her to do so symbolizes her flaunting of all societal norms. At first the taxes were waived for her, much as the townspeople grudgingly acknowledged the social superiority of the Griersons. However, when the taxes are demanded, it represents how the townspeople expect Emily to conform to societal norms now that her lack of wealth is common knowledge. Emily doesn't pay the taxes, and she never begins acting the way her neighbors believe she should.

The crayon portrait of her father that is prominent in Emily's home symbolizes the way that her father's influence continues to affect Emily. Not only did she inherit insanity from his side of the family, but his not allowing her to marry any of the young men in town led to her unhealthy relationship with Homer Barron. 

Finally, the lime the aldermen spread around her house is a symbol of their trying to mask the problem of Emily without ever getting at its root. They spread lime because they are too embarrassed to confront her about the smell on her property. In the same way, they don't really pursue the problem Emily represents—they let it continue for decades, even though it turns out she has been guilty of murder and is therefore criminally insane.

These are some of the symbols Faulkner works into "A Rose for Emily."

What does the reader learn about Tom's wife in "Contents of the Dead Man's Pocket"?

In Jack Finney's story "Contents of the Dead Man's Pocket," the reader learns that the wife of protagonist, Tom Benecke, is affectionate, pleasant, considerate and concerned, well-loved and important to her husband, but neglected by him. 

As the narrative begins, Tom sits at his small desk in the living room in order to begin the completion of his sales project; he types on a sheet of paper designated as "Interoffice Memo." After spending three week-ends on this project, Tom wants to give it to his boss, who, hopefully, will read it over the coming weekend before the others submit their projects on Monday. Feeling rather warm and uncomfortable, Tom goes to the window and yanks it open. Afterwards, he calls to his wife, "Clare?" and when she answers, he asks, "Sure you don't mind going alone?" She answers "No." Then, she hurries from the bedroom in her slip, and while fastening an earring,

...her prettiness emphasized by the pleasant nature that she showed in her face. "It's just that I hate you to miss this movie; you wanted to see it, too."

When Tom says that he must "get this done though," she nods in acceptance; however, she does add, "You work too much, though...and too hard." Tom counters by telling her that she will not mind that he has worked so much when "the money comes rolling in" as he earns a promotion. Clare smiles and answers, "I guess not," but she turns back toward the bedroom to finish dressing and soon departs.

Later, her absence becomes a crucial factor in Tom's life after he goes out onto the eleventh floor ledge to retrieve his yellow information sheet that has blown out the opened window with a draft. It is in these moments of crisis that Tom realizes just how much Clare means to him and how insignificant his yellow sheet of paper is in comparison. Further, as he makes his bold attempt to break the window that has slammed shut, Tom shouts "Clare!" reaffirming his love for his wife. For, he has realized the absurdity of having based his life upon his materialistic goal. After successfully gaining entry into the safety of the apartment, Tom hurries to catch his dear wife at the movies and spend the rest of the evening with her. 

What aspects of Curley's wife's personality does Steinbeck present when she is first mentioned in chapter two of Of Mice and Men?

In chapter two of Steinbeck's novella Of Mice and Men, the old swamper Candy describes the main characters on the ranch including Curley's wife. She comes up in the conversation between George and Candy after Curley comes into the bunkhouse looking for her. Candy describes her as pretty but also flirtatious and even possibly promiscuous. He says she's "got the eye," meaning she is often around the men on the ranch trying to talk to them. Candy uses the terms tart, tramp and floozy to refer to her.

A little later she comes into the bunkhouse looking for Curley. Ironically, the two always seem to be looking for each other but are never in the same scene together until chapter five when she is found dead. Her characterization is sexually charged. She is young but seductive in appearance:

She had full, rouged lips and wide-spaced eyes, heavily made up. Her fingernails were red. Her hair hung in little rolled clusters, like sausages. She wore a cotton house dress and red mules, on the insteps of which were little bouquets of red ostrich feathers. 

She tries to flirt with and even to tease George and Lennie as she flaunts her body in the doorway. At this point the reader may simply consider her the "tramp" Candy says she is. Her personality is outgoing in a provocative sort of way but she is also a bit "apprehensive" about Curley. Later, however, we learn that she is essentially lonely and craves attention because Curley neglects her and probably even mistreats her. 

What is the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children (WISC)?

Introduction

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) retains the essential content and structure of the original Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), published in 1949. The fourth edition, however, provides current representative normative data, updated test items that attempt to minimize culture bias and gender bias, more contemporary and visually appealing testing materials, and clearer administrative procedures, factor structure rules, and scoring rules. These improvements make the test more interesting and fairer for the child and more user-friendly for the examiner.

History of Development

David Wechsler
defined intelligence as the overall capacity of an individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment. He believed intelligence to be a general concept that is multidetermined and multifaceted, rather than a specific trait or type of intellectual ability. An intelligence test is a device that assesses an individual’s potential for purposeful and useful behavior. To measure intelligence at the adult level, he selected eleven subtests from a wide range of existing standardized tests and published the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale in 1939. This assessment became the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale in 1955 and is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV), published in 2008 (the fifth edition was scheduled for publication in 2014).

In 1949, to provide an instrument to measure the intelligence of children as young as five years old, he developed the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children by designing easier items appropriate for children and adding them to the original scales. Due to suspected ethnic and socioeconomic bias in the standardization
sample, the test was revised in 1974 to establish normative data that were more representative of ethnic minorities and children from lower socioeconomic levels. The present form, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition, was published in 2003.

Description of the Test

The WISC-IV consists of ten primary subtests and five supplementary subtests. There are four indexes to the test: Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed. The verbal subtests assess the takers ability to listen to a question and to draw on knowledge to come to a conclusion and verbalize an answer. The Perpetual Reasoning Index stresses visualization, requiring the test taker to use motor and spatial skills to create and test solutions. The Working Memory Index tests the child's short-term memory and his or her ability to process the information. The Processing Speed Index assesses how quickly a child can order visual information. Each of these indexes is given a score to highlight the overall intellectual capabilities of the test taker. The results also produce a Full Scale IQ (FSIQ), which ranges score from 40 to 160.

Standardization, Reliability, and Validity

The WISC-IV was standardized on groups considered representative of the United States population of children according to 2000 census data. A stratified sampling plan was used to select children in representative proportions according to age, gender, race/ethnicity, geographic region, and parent education. A total of 2,200 children in eleven age groups ranging from six years to sixteen years, eleven months of age were selected, with an equal amount of male and female children in each group. Both public and private schools were sampled, and students receiving special services in school settings were included if they could speak and understand English. The test represented five levels of the children's parental education, and four US geographical areas.

Applications of the WISC-IV

The WISC-IV is commonly used for the psychoeducational assessment, neurological assessment, and clinical assessment of school-aged children. As a psychoeducational tool, the WISC-IV is often part of the assessment battery used for the diagnosis of intellectual disability and giftedness and for the appropriate placement in special school-based programs. Moreover, the separation of verbal and performance subtests allows the examiner to select portions of the test that can be successfully completed by children with hearing impairments, visual impairments, and orthopedic handicaps. Studies have shown that responses to WISC-IV subtests have provided information useful for the diagnosis and remediation of learning disabilities, brain injury, and other cognitive deficits.

Bibliography

Boyle, Gregory John, Gerald Matthews, and Donald H. Saklofske. Psychological Assessment. Los Angeles: Sage, 2012. Print.

Cohen, Ronald Jay, Mark E. Swerdlik, and Edward Sturman. Psychological Testing and Assessment: An Introduction to Tests and Measurement. New York: McGraw, 2013. Print.

Cooper, Shawn. The Clinical Use and Interpretation of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. 3rd ed. Springfield: Thomas, 1995. Print.

Groth-Marnat, Gary. Handbook of Psychological Assessment. 5th ed. New York: Wiley, 2009. Print.

Newmark, Charles S. Major Psychological Assessment Instruments. 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn, 1996. Print.

Raiford, Susan Engi, and Diane L. Coalson. Essentials of WPPSI-IV Assessment. Hoboken: Wiley, 2014. Print.

Sattler, Jerome M. Assessment of Children. 5th ed. San Diego: Author, 2006. Print.

Sattler, Jerome M. WISC-IV and WPPSI-R Supplement to Assessment of Children. San Diego: Author, 2004. Print.

Wechsler, David. Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. 3rd ed. New York: Psychological Corporation, 1991. Print.

“The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition.” The Twelfth Mental Measurement Yearbook. Ed. Jane C. Conoley and James C. Impara. Lincoln: U of Nebraska P, 1995. Print.

Woodrich, David L. Children’s Psychological Testing: A Guide for Nonpsychologists. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Brookes, 1997. Print.

Who was Ed Ricketts?

Edward Flanders Robb Ricketts was born in 1897 in Chicago. Ricketts attended Illinois State Normal University and the University of Chicago, taking classes in zoology and philosophy.

In 1923, Ricketts and a friend opened Pacific Biological Laboratories, which supplied specimens to schools. Ricketts eventually became the lab's sole owner. Ricketts' lab became known as a meeting place for writers and scholars.

In 1930, Ricketts met and befriended writer John Steinbeck. Ricketts became the inspiration for many of the characters in Steinbeck's works.

In 1939, Ricketts published an ecological handbook about intertidal marine life titled Between Pacific Tides. This handbook is still used by many universities today.

During the 1940s, Ricketts developed indices of marine life specimens and produced an in-depth study of sardines. He combined metaphysics and the scientific method to develop a more holistic way of thinking about and describing the world.

In 1948, Ricketts died as the result of a car collision with a train.

In addition to significantly influencing the writings of John Steinbeck, Ed Ricketts inspired future generations of marine biologists and influenced the environmental movement in America.

What changes did Henry VIII make to the church?

Henry VIII, king of England, reformed the Roman Catholic Church to suit his own needs.  His changes are known as the English Reformation and occurred in the 16th Century.  He was motivated to make the reforms so that he could divorce his first wife who had failed to provide him with a male heir.  Divorce was forbidden by the church.

Since Henry wanted a divorce, he separated from the church.  He was put at the helm of the Church of England.  The religion was not radically changed in terms of the ritual and services.  The Holy Bible was written in English instead of Latin and was translated by English priests.  Henry confiscated the property of the monasteries and redistributed the wealth amongst the poor, which made his move very popular.  He also kept vast sums of wealth for himself.  Essentially, the greatest reform of Henry was that he connected the throne of England as the head of the new church in England.  

What does "Lamb to the Slaughter" teach us?

The story teaches readers about capability.  When the story first begins, the reader never once would have thought that Mary Maloney was capable of killing her husband and getting away with it.  I don't think that Mary Maloney even thought she could be capable of it.  When the reader is introduced to Mary, she is calm and mild mannered.  She is a classical, doting wife who only lives to be in the mere presence of her husband.  

She loved to luxuriate in the presence of this man, and to feel-almost as a sunbather feels the sun-that warm male glow that came out of him to her when they were alone together. 

She is meek, mild, and passive to a fault.  No way I thought her capable of cooking and feeding a murder weapon to a bunch of cops.  That's twisted.  Of course Mary primarily  changed when she realized that her unborn child was in danger.

On the other hand, what about the child? What were the laws about murderers with unborn children? Did they kill then both-mother and child? Or did they wait until the tenth month? What did they do?

Mary Maloney didn’t know. And she certainly wasn’t prepared to take a chance.

The reader, and Mary, learned what she was really capable of doing when her life and her child's life were at stake.  

I think that is the main teaching lesson of this story.  A person doesn't really know what he/she is capable of until they are put to the test.  

Contrast what Gale and Peeta signify for Katniss. How do each help her succeed in the games?

While she is in the Games, Katniss relies on Gale and Peeta to help her survive in different ways. While Gale represents Katniss' practical knowledge and skills, Peeta represents her more emotional, personal struggle within the Games. 

Before becoming a tribute, Katniss and Gale would go hunting outside of their district. During that time, Katniss perfected her skills with her bow and arrows, and she also learned how to make traps from Gale. Because of this experience, she knew she would be able to find food in the Games, and she was more confident in her abilities to defend herself from the other tributes. 

Katniss did not have much interaction with Peeta before the Games (aside from when he gave her some bread), but once they were in the Capitol together, things changed. At first, she did resist teaming up with him because her only goal was to survive and get back to her sister, which she knew would be more difficult if she thought of Peeta as a friend. But once the Game-maker announced that two tributes could be victors together if they were from the same district, Katniss' attitude changed: Peeta brought out a more human side of her as she had to take care of him after he was injured trying to help her. 

Although it was only Peeta in the Games with Katniss, both he and Gale helped her survive. Gale represented Katniss' past and her own abilities; Peeta represented Katniss' future and what they could do together.

What was Banquo's revenge, and how did it affect Macbeth?

It may seem strange to speak of Banquo as taking revenge on Macbeth, as Macbeth kills Banquo and sends his son, Fleance, into hiding. On this account, Macbeth has total victory over his former friend. If, however, we take a broader view of the play's action, we see that it is Banquo, not Macbeth, who is ultimately triumphant.

In Act IV, the witches taunt Macbeth by conjuring a procession of eight kings; the last of these holds a mirror in which the reflection of even more can be seen. Macbeth is led to realize that these are all Banquo's descendants. This is a hard blow to Macbeth, who is childless, and whose reign is quickly unraveling. The message is clear: Macbeth's reign will end miserably, and Banquo, through his descendants, will be victorious. In this way, Banquo will have what Macbeth can never have: children, lineage, and honor.

It could also be argued that, by Act IV (and certainly Act V), Macbeth is increasingly distraught and unable to sleep. He is now responsible not only for the deaths of King Duncan and Banquo, but also Lady Macduff, her young son, and others. Prince Malcolm, Macduff, and an entire army are marching toward him; Lady Macbeth has gone insane. Although Banquo is dead, he is not a murderer, and Macbeth's existence is certainly hellish. Hence, we can argue that Banquo's honorable life (and death) are also a form of revenge against Macbeth, who by the end of the play is utterly defeated, tormented, and alone.

What did President Truman do during the Cold War to stop the spread of communism?

President Truman took actions to try to stop the spread of communism. As communism spread through Eastern Europe, we developed a policy called Containment. The goal of the Containment policy was to keep communism from spreading.

There were many actions that were part of this policy. The European Recovery Program offered aid to countries fighting the spread of communism. Greece and Turkey were two countries that benefited from this aid. When the Soviet Union established the Berlin Blockade, we used the Berlin Airlift to keep West Berlin from becoming communist. We flew supplies over the blockade until the Soviet Union lifted the blockade. We went to the United Nations to ask for help for South Korea, which was resisting the unprovoked invasion by North Korea. We led the United Nations forces in the fight against North Korea. We were successful in preventing the spread of communism in these instances.

President Truman took several actions to stop the spread of communism.

What are three social achievements of Charlemagne?

Charlemagne was instrumental in helping Western Europe exit the Dark Ages, during which very few cultural or social advancements were realized.

One of Charlemagne's core social achievements was to allow all classes to participate in commerce. Charlemagne mandated that all of Europe should use the same silver currency. This led to an increase in trade and a boom in the economy.

Charlemagne also was instrumental in facilitating the spread of Christianity across Europe. In fact, he played such a large role in the spread of the Christian faith that Pope Leo III crowned him emperor of the Romans.

Charlemagne was a strong proponent of education as well. In addition to desiring to improve culture and literacy, he also desired to educate the clergy. In turn, the clergy was able to undertake many of the administrative tasks associated with government service as well. 

Management viewpoints evolve over time. These include the management of human behavior in organizations, the key goals of organizations, the...

Your questions asks about the four most widely accepted managerial viewpoints. Yet, there are five widely-accepted management viewpoints to date, which include the traditional, behavioral, system, contingency, and quality viewpoints, each with its own strengths, limitations, and contributions. 

• With the traditional or classical viewpoint, the three main branches include bureaucratic, administrative, and scientific management.  These branches emerged from 1890 to 1990 as engineers attempted to create well-oiled businesses.


• Moving to the behavioral viewpoint, after WWI, radical industrial and cultural changes occurred.  Assembly lines flooded goods to market, as standards of living and working conditions improved.  Managers were forced to recognize and accommodate worker rights, needs, and values.  With this recognition also came the awareness that workers want respect, and traditional management practices could not keep pace with the race to produce.  Out of these realizations and awareness, the viewpoint of behavioral management was adopted.


• Regarding the system viewpoint, during WWII, teams formed to analyze and solve complex problems such as routes and speeds of convoys, probable armament locations, etc.  These were not intuitive problems.  To deal with such complexity, the UK and the US developed systems analysis.  This approach first became an accepted tool of the US Department of Defense and space programs.  Then, systems analysis filtered into private industry and management viewpoints.


• About the contingency viewpoint or situational approach, developed in the 1960s, this suggests that management practices should require consistency of the external environment, technology, and the skills of the workers involved.  Put differently, a situational approach depends on the variables of a business problem.  Managers are expected to select and effectively use three or more management viewpoints concurrently based on the complexity and need of a business problem.


• Finally, the quality viewpoint emerges as a response to the global challenges that face industry in the 21st century.  High customer demand for large quantities of quality products and consistent service lend to the develop of management theories such as Total Quality Management (TQM), the EFQM Excellence Model, the Object Oriented Quality Model (OQM), etc.

Adjusting to the cultural and industrial complexities of the time period, management viewpoints change.  From the traditional or classical viewpoint to the behavioral to the systems, contingency, and quality viewpoints, business needs generate new and unique challenges.  

What is Kennedy disease?

Risk Factors

Since Kennedy disease is inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern, the largest risk factor for showing symptoms of disease is a male having a maternal history of Kennedy disease. Some families have passed the CAG expansion exclusively through the maternal line and have never had a liveborn male affected. De novo (spontaneous) mutations have not been observed; therefore, risks to families without a family history are very low.

Kennedy disease is described as a sex-limited disease, meaning that female carriers are not expected to be symptomatic. There have been reports of some female carriers having an increased occurrence of muscle cramps and fatigue.

Etiology and Genetics

Kennedy disease is caused by a polyglutamine (CAG) expansion in the androgen receptor (AR) gene on the X chromosome, at location Xq11-Xq12. Kennedy disease results when a male has more than thirty-five CAG repeats in the AR gene. The CAG expansion is believed to alter the AR protein structure to cause neuromuscular degeneration. The mechanism of expansion causing disease is not well understood. The AR protein is expressed in the brain, spinal cord, and muscle tissue.

Only males will be affected with Kennedy disease. Females carrying one X chromosome with the CAG expansion in the AR gene are unaffected carriers. All daughters of men with Kennedy disease will be unaffected carriers. All sons of men with Kennedy disease will be unaffected noncarriers. Daughters of carrier women will have a 50 percent risk of being carriers themselves, whereas sons of carrier women will have a 50 percent risk of being affected with Kennedy disease.

The CAG expansion seen in the AR protein in Kennedy disease is not believed to significantly expand in gametogenesis, as seen in other CAG repeat disorders. However, some cases of expansion have been documented. In general, the number of CAG repeats inversely correlates with the age of onset of symptoms including muscle weakness, difficulty climbing stairs, and wheelchair dependence. Therefore, a small amount of anticipation (increasing severity with subsequent generations) is expected. Also, males with more CAG repeats are expected to have an earlier age of diagnosis, as well as a more rapid progression of symptoms. However, this association can account for only 60 percent of the clinical variation in affected individuals. Therefore the number of CAG repeats in the AR gene cannot be used to predict age of onset or clinical severity of symptoms.

Symptoms

Neurologic symptoms typically begin between the ages of twenty and fifty. The first symptoms are usually difficulty walking, muscle cramps, and an intention tremor. As the disease progresses, symptoms worsen to include involvement of the bulbar muscles, and affected individuals typically have difficulty with speech articulation and swallowing. Approximately one-third of affected individuals will require a wheelchair as the disease progresses. Symptoms of androgen insensitivity are also seen, including gynecomastia, testicular atrophy, and reduced fertility. Some affected males have reported difficulty having children and inability to grow facial hair.

Screening and Diagnosis

Diagnosis is made by clinical exam and evaluation of family history. Functional muscle testing may help to make a diagnosis of Kennedy disease. A pattern of X-linked inheritance should be considered and other inheritance methods ruled out. Molecular genetic testing to evaluate the number of repeats in the AR gene will confirm or rule out the diagnosis. Predictive testing of children and prenatal testing are generally not performed due to ethical implications of diagnosing a young person for an adult-onset condition.

Treatment and Therapy

Treatment includes physical therapy and rehabilitation services for the neuropathic and muscular symptoms. Strength testing and pulmonary function testing can be used as surveillance of disease progression. Psychosocial counseling may be helpful to affected individuals and family to learn coping skills for dealing with a diagnosis of a degenerative neuromuscular genetic disease. Genetic counseling is recommended for families with Kennedy disease to discuss natural history, surveillance, and risk to family members.

Most patients will require aid with walking as the disease progresses, including braces, walkers, or wheelchairs. Breast reduction surgery for gynecomastia is performed as needed. Supplementation of testosterone does not appear to overcome the androgen insensitivity; however, research studies are under way to determine its effectiveness.

Prevention and Outcomes

Surveillance of disease progression and intervention services such as physical therapy may help alleviate symptoms or progression of disease. There are no other known risk factors that will mitigate the effect of the disease. Life expectancy is not expected to be reduced.

Bibliography

Jorde, Lynn B., John C. Carey, Michael J. Bamshad, and Raymond L. White. Medical Genetics. 3d ed. Philadelphia: Mosby, 2006.

Nance, M. A. “Clinical Aspects of CAG Repeat Diseases.” Brain Pathology 7 (1997): 881–900.

Nussbaum, Robert L., Roderick, R. McInnes, and Huntington F. Willard. Thompson and Thompson Genetics in Medicine. 7th ed. New York: Saunders, 2007.

What is the relevance of ecological issues to the business environment?

Ecological/environmental issues have a large impact on businesses for a number of reasons. Costs and public relations are affected areas of note.

While our changing environment may not affect all businesses directly and immediately in a monetary way, it will affect all businesses indirectly over time. Let's take the example of climate change. Climate change is going to be a game-changer for business, and in some instances already is. Businesses located in many coastal areas will have to increase their insurance coverage, if that is possible, or will have to relocate completely, as more extreme weather and rising seas put some businesses' physical plants at risk.  This can be an enormous expenditure, even without calculating the cost of lost business. The business losses and expenses after Hurricanes Sandy and Katrina were in the billions.

Agriculture-centered businesses are another example. Climate change may very well create areas in which previously grown crops are no longer viable. Even if a farmer is able to change crops, this is costly. Just a few degree increase in temperature is probably enough to reduce or wipe out any number of crops.

A company that does not heed its energy "footprint" is probably subjecting itself to needless costs. A "green" building reduces overhead greatly, keeping down energy bills. A company that keeps most of its records on paper, rather than online, is similarly spending money needlessly. 

Many consumers today have concerns about the environment and will express those concerns by avoiding businesses that are not environmentally conscientious. Environmentally conscientious companies will promote their green values as a form of good public relations, and some consumers will vote with their pocketbooks and change allegiances based upon this, just as they do so over social issues. An environmentally irresponsible company generates very bad PR in the eyes of many.

It may not be particularly persuasive to argue to businesses that they should be ecologically responsible for ethical reasons. When one starts to look at bottom line and reputation, though, there are financially compelling reasons for businesses to do so. 

What is hypoglycemia?

Causes and Symptoms

The condition known as hypoglycemia exists when the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream is too low to meet bodily needs for fuel, particularly those of the brain. Ordinarily, physiological compensatory mechanisms are called into play when the circulating concentration of glucose falls below about 3.5 millimoles. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the secretion of glucagon are especially important in promoting glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Symptoms of sympathetic nervous activation normally become apparent with glucose concentrations that are less than about 3 millimoles. Brain function is usually demonstrably abnormal at glucose concentrations below about 2 millimoles; sustained hypoglycemia in this range can lead to permanent brain damage.

Some of the symptoms of hypoglycemia occur as by-products of activation of the sympathetic nervous system. These symptoms include trembling, pallor, palpitations and rapid heartbeat, sweating, abdominal discomfort, and feelings of anxiety and/or hunger. These symptoms are not dangerous in themselves; in fact, they may be considered to be beneficial, as they alert the individual of the need to obtain food. Meanwhile, the sympathetic nervous system signals compensatory mechanisms. The manifestations of abnormal brain function during hypoglycemia include blunting of higher cognitive functions, disturbed mentation, confusion, loss of normal control of behavior, headache, lethargy, impaired vision, abnormal speech, paralysis, neurologic deficits, coma, and epileptic seizures. The individual is usually unaware of the appearance of these symptoms, which can present real danger. For example, episodes of hypoglycemia have occurred while individuals were driving motor vehicles, which can lead to serious injury and death. After recovery from hypoglycemia, the patient may have no memory of the episode.

There are two major categories of hypoglycemia: fasting and reactive. The most serious, fasting hypoglycemia, represents impairment of the mechanisms responsible for the production of glucose when food is not available. These mechanisms include the functions of cells in the liver and brain that monitor the availability of circulating glucose. Additionally, there is a coordinated hormonal response involving the secretion of glucagon, growth hormone, and other hormones and the inhibition of the secretion of insulin. The normal consequences of these processes include the addition of glucose to the circulation, primarily from glycogenolysis, as well as a slowing of the rate of utilization of circulating glucose by many tissues of the body, especially the liver, skeletal and cardiac muscle, and fat. Even after days without food, the body normally avoids hypoglycemia through breakdown of stored proteins and activation of gluconeogenesis. There is considerable redundancy in the systems that maintain glucose concentration, so the occurrence of hypoglycemia often reflects the presence of defects in more than one of these mechanisms.

The other category of hypoglycemia, reactive hypoglycemia, includes disorders in which there is disproportionately prolonged and/or great activity of the physiologic systems that normally cause storage of the glucose derived from ingested foods. When a normal person eats a meal, the passage of food through the stomach and intestines elicits a complex and well-orchestrated neural and hormonal response, culminating in the secretion of insulin from the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas. The insulin signals the cells in muscle, adipose tissue, and the liver to stop producing glucose and to derive energy from glucose obtained from the circulation. Glucose in excess of the body’s immediate needs for fuel is taken up and stored as glycogen or is utilized for the manufacture of proteins. Normally, the signals for the uptake and storage of glucose reach their peak of activity simultaneously with the entry into the circulation of glucose from the food undergoing digestion. As a result, the concentration of glucose in the circulation fluctuates only slightly. In individuals with reactive hypoglycemia, however, the entry of glucose from the digestive tract and the signals for its uptake and storage are not well synchronized. When signals for the cellular uptake of glucose persist after the intestinally derived glucose has dissipated, hypoglycemia can result. Although the degree of hypoglycemia may be severe and potentially dangerous, recovery can take place without assistance if the individual’s general nutritional state is adequate and the systems for activation of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis are intact.

Diagnosis and Treatment

The diagnostic evaluation of an individual who is suspected of having hypoglycemia begins with verification of the condition. Evaluation of a patient’s symptoms can be confusing. On one hand, the symptoms arising from the sympathetic nervous system and those of neuroglycopenia may occur in a variety of nonhypoglycemic conditions. On the other hand, persons with recurrent hypoglycemia may have few or no obvious symptoms. Therefore, it is most important to document the concentration of glucose in the blood.

To establish the diagnosis of fasting hypoglycemia, the patient is kept without food for periods of time, up to seventy-two hours, with frequent monitoring of the blood glucose. Should hypoglycemia occur, blood is taken for measurements of the key regulatory neurosecretions and hormones, including insulin, glucagon, growth hormone, cortisol, and epinephrine, as well as general indices of the function of the liver and kidneys. If there is suspicion of an abnormality in an enzyme involved in glucose production, the diagnosis can be confirmed by measurement of the relevant enzymatic activity in circulating blood cells or, if necessary, in a biopsy specimen of the liver.

Fasting hypoglycemia may be caused by any condition that inhibits the production of glucose or that causes an inappropriately great utilization of circulating glucose when food is not available. Insulin produces hypoglycemia through both of these mechanisms. Excessive circulating insulin ranks as one of the most important causes of fasting hypoglycemia, most cases of which result from the treatment of diabetes mellitus with insulin or with an oral drug of the sulfonylurea class. If the patient is known to be taking insulin or a sulfonylurea drug for diabetes, the cause of hypoglycemia is obvious; appropriate modification of the treatment should be made. Hypoglycemia caused by oral sulfonylureas is particularly troublesome because of the prolonged retention of these drugs in the body. The passage of several days may be required for recovery, during which time the patient needs continuous intravenous infusion of glucose.

Excessive insulin secretion may also result from increased numbers of pancreatic beta cells; the abnormal beta cells may be so numerous that they form benign or malignant
tumors, called insulinomas. The preferred treatment of an insulinoma is surgery, if feasible. When the tumor can be removed surgically, the operation is often curative. Unfortunately, insulinomas are sometimes difficult for the surgeon to find. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT) scanning, ultrasonography, or angiography may help localize the tumor. Some insulinomas are multiple and/or malignant, rendering total removal impossible. In these circumstances, hypoglycemia can be relieved by drugs that inhibit the secretion of insulin.

Malignant tumors arising from various tissues of the body may produce hormones that act like insulin with respect to their effects on glucose metabolism. In some cases, these hormones are members of the family of insulin-like growth factors, which resemble insulin structurally. Malnutrition probably has an important role in predisposing patients with malignancy to hypoglycemia, which tends to occur when the cancer is far advanced.

Fasting hypoglycemia can be caused by disorders affecting various parts of the endocrine system. One such disorder is adrenal insufficiency; continued secretion of cortisol by the adrenal cortex is required for maintenance of normal glycogen stores and of the enzymes of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Severe hypothyroidism also may lead to hypoglycemia. Impairment in the function of the anterior pituitary gland predisposes a patient to hypoglycemia through several mechanisms, including reduced function of the thyroid gland and adrenal cortices (which depend on pituitary secretions for normal activity) and reduced secretion of growth hormone. Growth hormone plays an important physiologic role in the prevention of fasting hypoglycemia by signaling metabolic changes that allow heart and skeletal muscles to derive energy from stored fats, thereby sparing glucose for the brain. Specific replacement therapies are available for
deficiencies of thyroxine, cortisol, and growth hormone.

Hypoglycemia has occasionally been reported as a side effect of treatment with medications other than those intended for treatment of diabetes. Drugs that have been implicated include sulfonamides, used for treatment of bacterial infections; quinine, used for treatment of falciparum malaria; pentamidine isethionate, given by injection for treatment of pneumocystosis; ritodrine, used for inhibition of premature labor; and propranolol or disopyramide, both of which are used for treatment of cardiac arrhythmias. Malnourished patients seem to be especially susceptible to the hypoglycemic effects of these medications, and management should consist of nutritional repletion in addition to discontinuation of the drug responsible. In children, aspirin or other medicines containing salicylates may produce hypoglycemia.

Alcohol hypoglycemia occurs in persons with low bodily stores of glycogen when there is no food in the intestine. In this circumstance, the only potential source of glucose for the brain is gluconeogenesis. When such an individual drinks alcohol, its metabolism within the liver prevents the precursors of glucose from entering the pathways of gluconeogenesis. This variety of fasting hypoglycemia can occur in persons who are not chronic alcoholics: It requires the ingestion of only a moderate amount of alcohol, on the order of three mixed drinks. Treatment involves the nutritional repletion of glycogen stores and the limitation of alcohol intake.

Severe infections, including overwhelming bacterial infection and malaria, can produce hypoglycemia by mechanisms that are not well understood. Patients with very severe liver damage can develop fasting hypoglycemia, because the pathways of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver are by far the major sources of circulating glucose in the fasted state. In such cases, the occurrence of hypoglycemia usually marks a near-terminal stage of liver disease. Uremia, the syndrome produced by kidney failure, can also lead to fasting hypoglycemia.

Some types of fasting hypoglycemia occur predominantly in infants and children. Babies in the first year of life may have an inappropriately high secretion of insulin. This problem occurs especially in newborn infants whose mothers had increased circulating glucose during pregnancy. Children from two to ten years of age may develop ketotic hypoglycemia, which is probably related to insufficient gluconeogenesis. These disorders tend to improve with time. Fasting hypoglycemia is also an important manifestation of a variety of inherited disorders of metabolism characterized by the abnormality or absence of one of the necessary enzymes or cofactors of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis or of fat metabolism (which supplies the energy for gluconeogenesis). Most of these disorders become evident in infancy or childhood. If there is a hereditary or acquired deficiency of an enzyme of glucose production, the problem can be circumvented by provision of a continuous supply of glucose to the affected individual.

There are several other rare causes of fasting hypoglycemia. A few individuals have had circulating antibodies that caused hypoglycemia by interacting with the patient’s own insulin or with receptors for insulin on the patient’s cells. Although the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system has an important role in signaling recovery from hypoglycemia, diseases affecting this branch of the nervous system do not usually produce hypoglycemia; presumably, hormonal mechanisms can substitute for the missing neural signals.

Reactive hypoglycemia can occur with an unusually rapid passage of foodstuffs through the upper intestinal tract, such as may occur after partial or total removal of the stomach. Persons predisposed to maturity-onset diabetes may also have reactive hypoglycemia, probably because of the delay in the secretion of insulin in response to a meal. Finally, reactive hypoglycemia need not indicate the presence of any identifiable disease and may occur in otherwise normal individuals.

Diagnosis of reactive hypoglycemia is made difficult by the variability of symptoms and of glucose concentrations from day to day. Adding to the diagnostic uncertainty, circulating glucose normally rises and falls after meals, especially those rich in carbohydrates. Consequently, entirely normal and asymptomatic individuals may sometimes have glucose concentrations at or below the levels found in persons with reactive hypoglycemia. Therefore, the
glucose tolerance test, in which blood samples are taken at intervals for several hours after the patient drinks a solution containing 50 to 100 grams of glucose, is quite unreliable and should not be employed for the diagnosis of reactive hypoglycemia. Proper diagnosis of reactive hypoglycemia depends on careful correlation of the patient’s symptoms with the circulating glucose level, preferably measured on several occasions after ingestion of ordinary meals. Some persons develop symptoms such as weakness, nausea, sweating, and tremulousness after meals, but without a significant reduction of circulating glucose. This symptom complex should not be confused with hypoglycemia.

When rapid passage of food through the stomach and upper intestine causes reactive hypoglycemia, the administration of drugs that slow intestinal transit may be helpful. When reactive hypoglycemia has no evident pathological cause, the patient is usually advised to take multiple small meals throughout the day instead of the usual three meals and to avoid concentrated sweets. These dietary modifications can help avoid hypoglycemia by reducing the stimulus to secrete insulin.

Two rare inherited disorders of metabolism can produce reactive hypoglycemia after the ingestion of certain foods. In hereditary fructose intolerance, the offending nutrient is fructose, a sugar found in fruits as well as ordinary table sugar. In
galactosemia, the sugar responsible for hypoglycemia is galactose, a major component of milk products. Management of these conditions, which usually become apparent in infancy or childhood, consists of avoidance of the foods responsible.

Perspective and Prospects

Fasting hypoglycemia is uncommon, except in the context of treatment of diabetes mellitus. The most serious public health problem associated with hypoglycemia is that it limits the therapeutic effectiveness of insulin and sulfonylurea drugs. Evidence suggests that elevation of the circulating glucose concentration (hyperglycemia) is responsible for much of the disability and premature death among patients withdiabetes. In many of these patients, therapeutic regimens consisting of multiple daily injections of insulin or continuous infusion of insulin through a small needle placed under the skin can reduce the average circulating glucose to normal. Frequent serious hypoglycemia is the most important adverse consequence of such regimens. Persons with diabetes seem to be at especially high risk for dangerous hypoglycemia for two reasons. First, there is often a failure of the warning systems that ordinarily cause uncomfortable symptoms when the circulating glucose concentration declines, a situation termed hypoglycemic unawareness. As a consequence, when a patient with diabetes attempts to control his or her blood sugar with more frequent injections of insulin, there may occur unheralded episodes of hypoglycemia that can lead to serious alterations in mental activity or even loss of consciousness. Many patients with diabetes also have hypoglycemic unresponsiveness, an impaired ability to recover from episodes of hypoglycemia. Also, diabetes can interfere with the normal physiologic responses that cause the secretion of glucagon in response to a reduction of circulating glucose, thus eliminating one of the most important defenses against hypoglycemia. If both hypoglycemic unawareness and hypoglycemic unresponsiveness could be reversed, intensive treatment of diabetes would become safer and more widely applicable.

Reactive hypoglycemia, although seldom a clue to serious disease, has attracted public attention because of its peculiarly annoying symptoms. These symptoms, which reflect activation of the sympathetic nervous system, resemble those of fear and anxiety. The symptoms are not specific, and many patients with these complaints do not have hypoglycemia.

In summary, hypoglycemia indicates defective regulation of the supply of energy to the body. When severe or persistent, hypoglycemia can lead to serious behavioral disorder, obtunded consciousness, and even brain damage. Fasting hypoglycemia may be a clue to significant endocrine disease. Reactive hypoglycemia, while annoying, usually responds to simple dietary measures. The study of hypoglycemia has led to many important insights into the regulation of energy metabolism.

Bibliography

Alan, Rick. "Hypoglycemia." Health Library, September 2012.

Chow, Cheryl, and James Chow. Hypoglycemia for Dummies. 2d ed. New York: Wiley, 2007.

Dods, Richard F. Understanding Diabetes: A Biochemical Perspective. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2013.

Harmel, Anne Peters, and Ruchi Mathur. Davidson’s Diabetes Mellitus: Diagnosis and Treatment. 5th ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 2004.

Hypoglycemia Support Foundation. http://www.hypoglycemia.org.

Kahn, C. R., et al., eds. Joslin’s Diabetes Mellitus. 14th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

Kalyani, Rita Rastogi, and Simeon Margolis. Diabetes: Your Annual Guide to Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2013.

Lincoln, Thomas A., and John A. Eaddy. Beating the Blood Sugar Blues: Proven Methods and Wisdom for Controlling Hypoglycemia. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.

McDermott, Michael T. Endocrine Secrets. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Saunders, 2013.

Melmed, Shlomo., et al., eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 12th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2011.

Parker, James N., and Philip M. Parker, eds. The 2002 Official Patient’s Sourcebook on Hypoglycemia. San Diego, Calif.: Icon Health, 2002.

What is public health?

Definition

Public health is a practice that focuses on the promotion of physical,
mental, and social health and well-being and on the prevention of disease and
disability among groups of people. It differs from the practice of medicine
because it focuses on prevention rather than cures and addresses the needs of
people as a whole rather than as individual persons.

Public health is an evidence-based practice, which means that its professionals collect and analyze data to determine the health needs and risks of a population and then design programs to deliver services that will effectively address these needs and reduce risks.

Areas of Specialization

Public health encompasses many specialized fields of study, including epidemiology, maternal and child care, environmental health, injury prevention and control, addiction, health education and promotion, and health program management and administration. These specialties evolved as the correlations between health and sanitation, safety, and behavior were better understood. Each specialization addresses the specific needs of a community.

Epidemiology

Epidemiology is the study of the relationship between
causative agents and morbidity and mortality. This relationship may not be one of
direct cause and effect, but the risk factors for a given illness are more likely
to be identified. By determining the distribution of a public health concern, such
as an infectious disease, within a population, commonalities may emerge that may
then be tested for significance.

A classic example of epidemiology is the investigational work of John
Snow, who looked into the source of a cholera outbreak in
1854 in central London. He began mapping the cases of cholera and found clusters
in two areas. He interviewed the residents of these neighborhoods and found that
they all had used the public water pump on one street. Direct examination of the water was
inconclusive, but Snow’s logic had convinced officials to remove the pump’s
handle, rendering it inoperable. Snow argued that the water company, Southwark and
Vauxhall Waterworks, was delivering polluted water from the Thames River to this
public well, which served areas that showed a high incidence of cholera. The
cholera epidemic began to wane, although it could not be proven whether this
occurred because of the pump’s water supply being discontinued or because people
had already left the area to escape the disease.

Snow used statistics and surveys to determine the distribution of the disease
and to identify common factors, suggested a plausible causative agent, and
proposed an effective solution. Similar, refined methods are used today in
epidemiology. For example, when the incidence of hantavirus
infection suddenly increased in the western and southwestern United States between
1993 and 2007, epidemiologists used morbidity and mortality statistics to identify
the trend and the geographical distribution. They looked for common factors and
found weather patterns, vegetation, and rodents. Hantavirus was known to be
transmitted when humans came in contact with the urine, feces, or saliva of
infected rodents. The reason, however, for the sudden increase was not yet clear.
When researchers began to study the relationships among common factors, they
discovered that climate change (hotter, moister summers and warmer autumns) had
nurtured increased vegetation, providing an increased food source (more seeds) for
rodents. The rodents then had a greater survival rate in the winter months and
multiplied at an accelerated rate. This increased rodent population propagated the
hantavirus and shed it in greater quantities.

Maternal and Child Care

The primary goals of public health programs in maternal and child care are to reduce infant mortality, reduce the prevalence of child abuse and neglect, and extend the life expectancy of children. Studies indicate that for the first time, children in the United States may not live as long as their parents, primarily because of lifestyle choices and resultant chronic diseases rather than infectious diseases. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the percentage of children between the ages of six and eleven who are obese had increased to 18 percent by 2012 because of poor nutrition, excessive eating, and a lack of physical activity. Obesity can lead to diabetes and heart disease, both of which reduce a person’s life expectancy.

Maternal and child health care begins with education in the schools about teenage pregnancy and providing access to prenatal care for all women. Although death during childbirth rarely occurs in the United States (14 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2015, according to the Central Intelligence Agency), women should have a safe, clean place in which to deliver with professional assistance. The rate of infant mortality is higher (5.87 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2015). Following birth, newborns need screening for diseases, disorders, and conditions so they can receive prompt and appropriate treatment and support. Newborns also benefit from breast-feeding and vaccinations. New mothers should also be screened for postpartum depression. Because mothers are still the primary caregivers, they must be taught about nutrition and healthy lifestyle choices for their children. In addition, they must have resources to care for children with special needs, such as autism, epilepsy, sickle cell disease, and hemophilia. Public health programs address these aspects of maternal and child health care, targeting at-risk populations such as teenagers, immigrants, and isolated rural residents.

Environmental Health

Environmental health involves the study of the human relationship with the surrounding world, or environment. Areas of study include outdoor air quality, water quality, waste management, agriculture, and chemical exposure. Environmental health professionals also inspect buildings for health hazards such as sick house syndrome, mold, radon, and infestations. They monitor climate changes because temperature and precipitation affect the spread of waterborne and food-borne diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Children are more sensitive than adults to their environment, so professionals also study allergies, asthma, chemical sensitivities, and secondhand smoke to improve pediatric health.

Environmental health specialists also influence a community’s infrastructure. They determine access to public transportation for subsequent access to health care and similar resources; help create bike paths, hiking trails, and outdoor recreation areas for public exercise; and work on systems for emergency preparedness and response. Such emergencies include major collisions and explosions that result in mass casualties, chemical spills, radiation leaks, natural disasters and severe weather, and infectious disease outbreaks.

Injury Prevention and Control

Injuries, which contribute to disability and death, are public health concerns. Injuries are like diseases because they have underlying causative factors, they have identifiable risk factors that increase their likelihood, and they have factors that make them preventable. Injuries may be divided into two categories: unintentional injuries and injuries caused by violence.

Unintentional injuries include motor vehicle collisions, falls, drowning,
sports collisions (with other players or with equipment), burns and electrical
injuries, and exposure to toxic chemicals. Public health addresses traffic safety
(drinking and texting while driving and wearing seatbelts when driving), the
regular use of protective equipment (motorcycle helmets, bicycle helmets, and
athletic mouth-guards), chemical safety (medication interactions, binge drinking,
and child-proofing home medicine cabinets), and identification of potential
hazards in the home and workplace. The prevention of unintentional injuries
reduces the expense of medical care, lowers the incidence and cost of long-term
disability, and decreases the number of deaths from unnatural causes.

Violence is the intentional infliction of pain and injury and may result in death. Although it is usually perpetrated by one person against another, it may be carried out by a group of people or it may be self-inflicted. Public health programs address issues such as street gangs, domestic violence, child abuse, teen suicide, and self-mutilation. These can become epidemics depending on a community’s socioeconomic status and access to professional resources with healthier alternatives.

Substance Use, Abuse, and Dependency

Public health professionals are concerned with the use of substances that have detrimental health effects. These substances include tobacco, alcohol, and a variety of drugs. According to a 2015 report by the United Nations, in 2013, twenty-seven million people worldwide were classified as problem drug users. Nicotine addiction significantly contributes to heart disease and lung disease, making it the foremost lifestyle-related cause of death worldwide.

One goal of public health agencies is to educate people about the dangers of substance use, misuse, abuse, and dependency. Use is the habitual ingestion of and misuse is the use of a substance for which it was not intended, such as inhaling aerosol propellants to get intoxicated (or high). Substance abuse involves dangerous actions and continued use in the face of negative consequences. Dependency has a strong psychological component and physiological need.

Another goal of public health agencies is to promote substance abuse and dependency as diseases. Agencies seek to foster understanding from families and communities that will encourage users to seek treatment. Cessation programs begin with withdrawal or detoxification and continue with behavior modification therapy on an inpatient or outpatient basis.

Public health agencies may also seek to ameliorate the effects of substance
abuse. For example, methadone clinics may be established to help people who are
otherwise unable to give up illegal drugs. Clean needles may be distributed to
reduce the spread of infectious diseases from sharing needles among intravenous
drug users. Because sex is often “traded” for drugs, condoms may be distributed to
reduce the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.

Health Education and Promotion

The first goal of health education and promotion is to improve the health of persons and families by providing accurate, timely, and understandable health information. According to the analysis by the National Center for Education Statistics of the National Assessment of Adult Literacy, which was conducted in 2003 and included a section specifically targeting health literacy, most adults (53 percent) have intermediate health literacy, meaning they can comprehend and apply some of the health information they read, but 14 percent have below-basic health literacy, meaning they can comprehend very little and apply almost none of the health information they read. Health information may be presented through brochures, posters, newspaper and magazine articles, and radio and television programs, and on websites. Many presentations are bilingual, depending, especially, on the region.

The second goal of health education and promotion is to create resources within the community to encourage and sustain a healthy lifestyle. These resources include school-based health centers; workplace programs such as stress management and smoking cessation (in support of a smoke-free environment); health fairs that showcase wellness resources such as yoga classes, massage therapists, and organic food shops; and community clinics for family planning, blood pressure monitoring, and flu shots.

The third goal of health education and promotion is to advocate for the public
health needs of communities by educating politicians on the health issues that are
affecting their constituents. Using the evidence-based approach, public health
officials can statistically define a community’s needs, propose well-established
strategies for meeting those needs,outline the resources necessary to implement
the strategies, and offer quantitative measures of the outcome. The desired
results of such advocacy are effective legislation, such as health care reform
acts, and appropriated funding for national, state, and local public health
programs.

Health Program Management and Administration

Public health departments are found at the federal, state, and local levels.
They maintain databases that include information on morbidity and mortality,
births and deaths, and records of inspection of public places, such as restaurants
and swimming pools. The departments operate laboratories for testing air, water,
and soil samples and for investigating microorganisms. They conduct
epidemiological surveillance and investigations into communicable diseases to
prevent epidemics. They often work with other agencies, such as
clinics,schools, businesses, and other government agencies.

Professionals in health program management and administration are frequently
responsible for grant writing and reporting and for overseeing budgets and
managing resources. Successful health programs depend on appropriate planning and
design that are based on an accurate assessment of community needs. Measurable
goals and objectives must directly arise from these data. The programs also depend
upon timely implementation with adequate attendance by the target population.
Finally, the programs depend on quantitative evaluation and plans for sustaining
the results. Effective public health efforts must also consider the social,
economic, and cultural characteristics of the communities they serve.

Impact

At the end of 2010, the US Department of Health and Human Services released its Healthy People 2020 program, which includes national health goals and objectives through 2020. Several hundred objectives cover twenty-eight priority areas of public health. The focus of this program is not simply to reduce disease and death rates; its goal is to improve quality of life and increase the years of healthy living. Morbidity and mortality rates are easy to collect for specific populations and to analyze by cause. Life expectancy in the United States, however, has increased significantly since 1979, so these rates are less relevant than are reduced disability, premature death, and improvements in pain control and functional capacity.

A second focus of this program is to eliminate or, at minimum, greatly reduce health disparities for racial and ethnic minority groups, people with physical or mental disabilities, socioeconomically disadvantaged people, and the elderly. Disparities are pronounced in infant mortality, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Public health professionals believe that all members of a community should have access to health education, disease prevention information, and medical care, based on the ideal of social justice.

An executive report released in 2014 stated that progress had been made on four significant objectives: fewer adults were smoking cigarettes, fewer children were exposed to secondhand smoke, more adults were meeting physical activity targets, and fewer adolescents were using alcohol or illegal drugs.

The effectiveness of public health initiatives has led to a shift in the major
cause of death: from infectious diseases to chronic diseases. Although some future
initiatives will continue to aim for the reduction of the incidence of infectious
diseases, others will address lifestyle-related choices, such as obesity and
cigarette smoking, which are controllable risk factors for chronic diseases.

Bibliography

"Childhood Obesity Facts." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC, 27 Aug. 2015. Web. 31 Dec. 2015.

Clement, Jan, et al. “Relating Increasing Hantavirus Incidences to the Changing Climate: The Mast Connection.” International Journal of Health Geographics 8 (2009): 1. Print.

Kutner, Mark, et al. The Health Literacy of America’s Adults: Results from the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy. Washington, DC: Natl. Center for Education Statistics, 2006. Print.

Turnock, Bernard J. Public Health: What It Is and How It Works. 4th ed. Maynard: Jones, 2008. Print.

United Nations. World Drug Report: 2015. New York: United Nations, 2015. PDF file.

"United States." World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency, 2015. Web. 31 Dec. 2015.

US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2010: Understanding and Improving Health. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2000. Print.

US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2020 Leading Health Indicators: Progress Update. Washington, DC: US Dept. of Health and Human Services, 2014. PDF file.

At the beginning of The Yearling by Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Jody has a tendency to shirk his responsibilities, and he sometimes fails to...

It's true that Jody shirks his responsibilities, sometimes failing to finish his chores. Talking about how slowly Jody does his chores, his mom says, "'To see him hoe, you'd think he was a snail.'"

Jody is also a bit lazy. Here he is at the beginning of Chapter 3:

"Jody opened his eyes unwillingly. Sometime, he thought, he would slip away into the woods and sleep from Friday until Monday."

We notice that Jody is thoughtful, a dreamer, and likes to seek out places for quiet reflection. He longs for a pet to ease his loneliness--he wants a companion. But his family says no; they can't afford the extra food.

Despite all this laziness and immaturity, Jody tries to please his parents and obey their orders, such as when they tell him to get ready to go hunting, or to wash his hands before sitting down to a meal.

Jody is immature and innocent. His laziness and dreaminess paint the picture of a naive boy who lacks knowledge about the world.

What is the best and most unique essay topic relating to The Great Gatsby and why?

The Great Gatsby is taught so frequently in academic settings that it may seem impossible to come up with a fresh take on it. But the novel is such a rich work of literature that there are nearly limitless possibilities for writing about it. The novel's themes may be a place to begin thinking about specific essay topics. For example, the clash of rich and poor ideology, or "new money and old money," is one prominent theme. But how could you make this stand out? Perhaps you could choose a very specific expression of this theme, such as physical descriptions of characters, or their clothes, as examples of how the author portrays these differences.

The novel's style is so nuanced and descriptive that any theme that looks more closely at its rich language would be a way to make your topic stand out (a opposed to writing about the theme in terms of plot or events). You could also make the writing style part of your topic; for example, the ways that the novel's language embodies romance, or tragedy, or cynicism. Using specific examples from the book, passages and sentences that illustrate your ideas, will also help your essay stand out and show your sensitivity to the text. 

How many systems does the spleen help? How many roles does the spleen have?

The spleen is a small organ located in the abdomen, just behind the stomach. It is sort of a "multipurpose" organ, and has roles in the circulatory, lymphatic, and immune systems. 

Though the spleen is quite small, it plays a big part in making sure we have healthy blood circulating through our bodies. The spleen's most important role is to filter out any red blood cells which are beginning to break down. The spleen can recycle usable components from these cells, like iron, in making new red blood cells. The spleen also serves to store blood in its highly elastic vascular tissue, so that if one sustains an injury or loses blood, these reserves can be put to use.

As a part of the lymphatic system, the spleen can detect and filter out bacteria and viruses. In the event of (potential) infection, the spleen helps to produce lymphocytes, which are cells that attack and break down illness-causing agents. Lymphocytes are also produced in the lymph nodes. In this function, the lymphatic and immune systems are highly connected, as it is the production of lymphocytes that helps to protect the body from infection.

Explain how the Great Depression changed history.

The Great Depression had a dramatic effect on the United States and also the rest of the world. The democratic response to the Great Depression led by Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal revolutionized the federal government. It created programs that aided those suffering from unemployment. Some programs created jobs preserving the environment or constructing bridges, parks, or dams. Other programs provided direct relief to farmers and the unemployed. All of the programs were funded by the federal government, which was a new development in American history. Americans started to view the federal government's role in a different way.

The stock market crash also had an impact on world trade. Countries like Germany and Japan that were already suffering with weak economies plunged even deeper into despair. These countries could no longer count on loans from the United States.  Inflation and unemployment hit those countries very hard. In response, the new democratic systems that were in place in Italy, Germany, and Japan were replaced by radical autocratic leadership. In many respects, the economic depression of the 1930's was a key reason for World War II.

Why is argon less reactive than sulphur?

Argon is a noble gas, while sulfur is not. And this is what makes sulfur more reactive as compared to argon. 

To react, an atom needs electrons that can be shared or donated or gained. That is only possible if the valence electron shell is not fully filled. If the atom has achieved a fully filled electronic configuration, it will not react any further.

Sulfur has an atomic number of 16 and an electronic configuration of 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p4. This means that it needs 2 more electrons or 4 less electrons for a fully filled configuration. This will make sulfur reactive.

In comparison, argon has an atomic number of 18 and an electronic configuration of 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6. That means that no electrons are available for sharing or exchange and that argon atom already has a fully filled configuration. This makes argon almost inert.

Thus, sulfur is more reactive as compared to argon.

Hope this helps.

The 8th term of an arithmetic sequence is 36. If the common difference is 2, what is the first term in the sequence?

We are given that the 8th term of an arithmetic sequence is 36, and the common difference is 2, and we are asked to find the first term:

In an arithmetic sequence, each term can be found by adding the common difference to the previous term. Thus we start with a(1), then a(2)=a(1)+d. Now a(3)=a(2)+d=(a(1)+d)+d=a(1)+2d.

The general form is `a_n=a_1+(n-1)d`

where n is the number of terms and d is the common difference.

Here we have a(8)=36; substituting the known values we get:

36=a(1)+7(2) ==> a(1)= 22

The first term is 22.

We can easily check this: 22,24,26,28,30,32,34,36.

Another way to think of this is to recognize an arithmetic sequnce as a set of points on a line. We are given the constant rate of change, 2, which is the slope of the line. We are also give a point on the line which is (8,36).

So y-36=2(x-8) or y=2x+20. So when x=0 we have y=20; when x=1 (the first term in our sequence) we have y=22.

What is the relationship between the Civil Rights Movement and Brown vs. Board of Education?

Brown vs. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1955) was the first Supreme Court case to most effectively work toward dismantling de jure, or legal segregation in public school systems. This case would also lead to efforts to desegregate lunch counters and other public accommodations throughout the South. 

Brown vs. the Board was not the first attempt of civil rights leaders to address Jim Crow laws. A. Philip Randolph helped to lead efforts to desegregate public transportation. In 1955, the Interstate Commerce Commission ruled that all segregation on interstate buses and trains had to end by January 10, 1956. Some Southern states reluctantly complied, while others tried to circumvent the law by upholding separate waiting rooms for intrastate black passengers.

There was resistance, too, after the Warren Court decided the Brown case. A separate decision in 1956 was handed down to deal explicitly with how Southern states should handle the desegregation of schools. 

Many states were slow to comply. Citizens were resistant. Consider the mayhem in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957 when a public high school was desegregated. Consider, too, how little Ruby Bridges had to be escorted to elementary school by a federal marshal in New Orleans. 

It is important to remember that schools and public transportation were merely the first efforts. The goal of Thurgood Marshall, Daisy Bates, and others who assisted in the early efforts, was to dismantle Jim Crow permanently. 

One can argue that, by seeing the hatred demonstrated toward children merely attending school, and the distress those children suffered, more Americans began to see the urgency of equality. Thus, people from all over the country, of all races, began to participate in efforts to desegregate lunch counters; university students began to protest their schools' complicity in black oppression; and organizations and their legal advisers worked to end discrimination and segregation in federal employment. 

These efforts would lead to the official act to end legal segregation throughout the nation: the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Civil Rights Act made it illegal and unconstitutional for any public institution or place of accommodation to discriminate or bar admission on the basis of race. This was followed by the Civil Rights Act of 1965 which made it illegal for Southern states to bar blacks from voting, particularly with its persistent use of poll taxes and tests which were not required of white voters.