What was rumored to be buried in the forest?

"The Devil and Tom Walker" begins by establishing a legend surrounding Captain Kidd, a pirate and privateer who once operated in the New England area. Kidd supposedly had amassed a large fortune, though it was never found. This story relates that Kidd buried the fortune in a wooden inlet outside of Boston, but its location was forgotten when Kidd was hanged shortly thereafter. 

Kidd, and his treasure, don't take up very much space in the plot following their introduction; they are simply established as a part of the introduction. This may have been a choice on Irving's part to give the story an "American" flavor, or just to contribute to the mood, tone and setting of the story. For example, the treasure is said to be guarded by Satan, which foreshadows unfortunate circumstances for anyone who seeks it. 

The treasure probably qualifies as a macguffin: a plot device intended more as a means by which to motivate the characters rather than being intrinsically important due to its nature. The relevance of the treasure being buried, or having pirate origins, is relatively inconsequential to the plot by the end of the story. 

What is evolutionary psychology?

Introduction

Humans share with other mammals basic behaviors, motivations, and emotions, but only humans can reflect on and discuss their behaviors, motivations, and emotions, and only humans can influence the behaviors, motivations, and emotions of others through such abstract concepts as appeals to duty, religion, laws, blackmail, promises, and lies. Like other psychologists, evolutionary psychologists study the brain structures and mental functions that underlie these capacities. Unlike other psychologists, evolutionary psychologists begin with the assumption that human mental capacities evolved through natural selection
the same way that human bodies did—that is, that the brain circuitry and processes underlying thought and behavior exist because they somehow helped human ancestors to survive and reproduce. It is this perspective, rather than research topics or methodology, that differentiates evolutionary psychology from other fields and approaches in psychology.

Arguing from this perspective, evolutionary psychologists have suggested that the aspects of brain and behavior that consistently conferred the greatest advantages on human ancestors are those that are most likely to now be automatic—that is, subconscious or instinctive. People do not need to be aware of how they avoid large moving objects, for example, as long as they can do it. The corollary line of reasoning is that those aspects of brain and behavior that are now the most automatic are likely to be those that had the greatest and most consistent advantages in the past. For this reason, it is the instinctive and automatic behaviors, as well as the subconscious bases of thoughts and feelings, that have received the most attention from evolutionary psychologists.

Sensation, Perception, and Hedonic Preferences

Certain important aspects of the behavior of the physical world seem to be innately wired into, or easily acquired by, the human brain. Babies experience anxiety about steep drop-offs as soon as they can see them, without having to learn by experiencing a fall. They also flinch or move away from objects that are getting larger on a projection screen and therefore appear to be coming toward them. Although babies cannot count or do math, they very quickly appreciate such fundamental concepts as length, mass, speed, and gravity, as well as the concepts of more and less and larger and smaller. They typically acquire an easy grasp of one of the most abstract concepts of all: time.

Humans also exhibit innate preferences for things that were “good” for human ancestors and a dislike of things that were “bad.” People naturally like sweet foods that provide them with the necessary glucose for their calorie-hungry brains and salty foods that provide them with the minerals to run their neuronal sodium-pump, yet they have to acquire (and may never acquire) a taste for bitter and foul-smelling foods, which signal their brains that the substance may contain toxins. The human brain also automatically causes people to develop intense aversions
to foods that were ingested several hours before becoming ill. Even in cases when a person consciously knows that it was not that food that actually caused the sickness, the very thought of that item may cause nausea ten years after an illness.

Humans are also wired for other kinds of “taste.” Children around the world prefer parklike landscapes that provide plenty of water and trees and forms of play that provide exercise, strengthen muscles, and increase physical coordination. Adults admire the beautiful faces and shapely bodies of the young, healthy, and disease-free—those who are the safest friends and most profitable mates. In sum, experiences of pain or disgust signal that something is potentially dangerous and is to be avoided; experiences of pleasure or admiration signal safety or opportunity and encourage a person to approach.

Emotion, Motivation, and Attachment

Important emotions, too, appear early in life, without having to be learned. These so-called primary emotions include fear, anger, happiness, sadness, surprise, and disgust. Like tastes, emotions serve as signals to alert the conscious awareness about important stimuli, but they also serve as signals to others. The facial expressions that accompany primary emotions are performed consistently across cultures, even in children blind from birth. People instinctively understand the facial expressions signifying emotion and pay special attention when they see them.

Perhaps the most important emotion for survival and reproduction is the
attachment that develops between an infant and its mother.
Human infants are completely dependent on parental care and, even after weaning, require intensive investment and supervision. It is thus in the interest of both mother and child that a close bond form between them, to keep the child from wandering away and to keep the mother motivated to address the constant demands of her offspring. Infants can recognize their mother’s voice and smell soon after birth and, as soon as their eyes are able to focus, can recognize—and show preference for—her face. Once they are old enough to crawl, babies develop an intense desire to be within sight of their mother and, when temporarily separated, experience and communicate great distress. Mothers, reciprocally, develop an intense attachment to their children, and they, too, experience distress on separation.

Other social emotions also motivate people to repeat mutually beneficial interactions and to avoid people who might take advantage of them. Guilt and shame are cross-cultural universals that indicate disgust toward one’s own behavior and signal to others that one is unlikely to repeat the “rotten” behavior; allegiance and sympathy signal a willingness to help allies when in need; and vengeance and hatred warn those who have harmed someone that they endanger themselves if they approach again.

Personality, Sex Differences, and Social Relations

Predicting other people’s behavior is important, so any aspect of a person that is consistent and can help a person to predict accurately becomes worthy of attention. One source of predictability derives from consistent personality differences between the sexes. Boys and men around the world are, on average, more physically aggressive, more competitive, more impulsive, and more risk-prone than girls and women, who are, on average, more nurturant, more empathetic, more cooperative, and more harm-avoidant than boys and men. These differences have impacts on social behavior across the life span, influencing patterns of early childhood play, courtship, parenting, career choice, and participation in warfare, crime, and other high-risk activities.

In addition to sex differences, there are two major dimensions of personality that seem of particular importance: dominance/submissiveness and friendliness/hostility. As with tastes and emotions, one’s assessment of another person’s personality seems to highlight “good/safe” versus “bad/dangerous” and signals to approach or avoid, respectively. It seems that people attend to personality to determine who is likely to be a friend, to be trustworthy, and to be helpful, versus who is likely to hurt, to betray, and to take advantage.

In fact, it might have been the need to predict how other people might respond that led to human beings’ great intelligence. Like other social species, humans constantly monitor the statuses of those around them: who is fighting, who is having sex, who is popular, who is not. Compared with other animals, however, humans have taken this kind of mental tracking to a level that is quite complex: a man can think about what a friend might think if his sister told him that she heard that he knew that his girlfriend had heard a rumor that he was seeing someone else but that he had not told him . . . and so on. Such multilevel cogitation requires a great deal of long-term and short-term memory, as well as an extensive ability to manipulate concepts and scenarios.

Learning, Language, and Thinking

Given humans’ great intellectual capacity, evolutionary psychologists do not claim that all knowledge is inborn—it is obvious that humans acquire much information through learning. Nonetheless, evolutionary psychologists note that certain types of information are more easily learned than others.

Language, for example, is a kind of complex and abstract knowledge that comes as second nature to very young children. Across all cultures and languages, children progress through regular stages of language development, acquiring the ability to both understand and produce grammatical speech (or, in the case of deaf children, visual signs). At their peak, children actually acquire several new words an hour. Most adults, on the other hand, have to work extremely hard to acquire a second or third language, and it is exceedingly difficult to teach even the smartest computers and robots how to understand elementary forms of speech. Language is an example of a highly specialized kind of learning that is prewired into the human brain; it is acquired quickly during a critical period of brain development, and once achieved, it is never forgotten.

Similarly, humans readily develop mental stereotypes
that, once acquired, are difficult or impossible to disregard. Stereotypes are, basically, abstract generalizations that arise from the subconscious integration of personal and vicarious experience. Like tastes, emotions, and attention to personality, the automatic generation of stereotypes helps a person to respond quickly and appropriately to new stimuli without wasting precious time assessing each nuance of each situation encountered each new minute of every day.

Applied Evolutionary Psychology

Evolutionary psychologists do not claim that behavior that was once adaptive is necessarily still adaptive, nor that behavior that has evolved is unchangeable. For example, while stereotypes were designed to work to a person’s advantage, the experiences that now go into one’s mental computations include not only real experiences but also thousands of images from movies, newspapers, and television. As a result, stereotypes reflect not necessarily reality and true experience but rather the biases of the society at large, often amplified in the make-believe world of Hollywood. Taking an evolutionary approach to psychology suggests that although people will continue to create stereotypes, by changing or monitoring media coverage, increasing exposure to positive images, or broadcasting the voices of the unheard, the content of stereotypes could be changed. Like other approaches to psychology, evolutionary psychology has practical implications that can help people to understand—and improve—the human condition.

Bibliography

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Buss, David M. Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind. 3d ed. Boston: Pearson, 2008. Print.

Campbell, Anne. A Mind of Her Own: The Evolutionary Psychology of Women. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2013. Print.

Crawford, C., and D. L. Krebs, eds. Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology: Ideas, Issues, and Applications. Mahwah: Erlbaum, 1998. Print.

Damasio, Antonio R. Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. 1994. Rpt. New York: Penguin, 2005. Print.

Frank, R. H. Passions Within Reason: The Strategic Role of the Emotions. New York: Norton, 1990. Print.

Gaulin, S. J. C., and D. H. McBurney. Psychology: An Evolutionary Approach. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2001. Print.

MacDonald, K. B., ed. Sociobiological Perspectives on Human Development. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988. Print.

Mealey, L. Sex Differences: Developmental and Evolutionary Strategies. San Diego: Academic, 2000. Print.

Okami, Paul. Psychology: Contemporary Perspectives. New York: Oxford UP, 2013. Print.

Pinker, Steven. The Language Instinct. London: Bloomsbury, 2008. Print.

Scheibel, A. B., and J. W. Schopf, eds. The Origin and Evolution of Intelligence. Boston: Jones, 1997. Print.

Workman, Lance, and Will Reader. Evolutionary Psychology. New York: Cambridge UP, 2014. Print.

What is the tone in "The Best of School" by D. H. Lawrence?

The tone in this poem shifts. In the beginning, the speaker's tone is one of frustration. The speaker (teacher of the class) describes his frustration in being unable to engage his students. At first, the speaker suggests that the students are underwater while he is on shore, alone. The bright ripples of the blinds represent the ripples on the surface of the water. The speaker/teacher is figuratively on shore while he tries to communicate to the boys underwater: a difficult task.

However, the students gradually engage with the teacher more and more. Each student first gives him a pondering look and then a look of acknowledgment:

And then he turns again, with a little, glad

Thrill of his work he turns again from me,

Having found what he wanted, having got what was to be had.

The teacher starts to get through to the students, "the stream of awakening ripple and pass / From me to the boys." They begin to learn. This moment of mutual recognition is the "best of school." Lawrence uses provocative imagery of the boys beginning to cling to him like tendrils. He means to illustrate how they are more and more interested in what he has to teach. In the end, his initial frustration is gone. His tone is now joyful. He is celebrating the mutual appreciation of teaching and those being taught: "their thrills are mine."

In "A Rose for Emily" by William Faulkner, why did the writer use a rose, not a flower, in the title of the story?

If I understand your question correctly, you're asking why the story is called "A Rose for Emily" rather than " A Flower for Emily," right?

First, let's take a look at Faulkner's own explanation for the title:

"[The title] was an allegorical title; the meaning was, here was a woman who had had a tragedy, an irrevocable tragedy and nothing could be done about it, and I pitied her and this was a salute…to a woman you would hand a rose." (This Faulkner quote comes from this book on Google Books.) 

Faulkner is saying that even though no one gives Emily a rose or even a flower in the story, he saw her as a women to whom one would want to give a rose, because they felt for her and her tragic situation. Many readers certainly feel that he accomplished this in the writing of the story, as even though Miss Emily is arrogant, haughty, and a creepy murderer, she is also a pitiable character. 

As to why Faulkner would use a "rose" in the title instead of another flower, or the word "flower" in general, I would say that the word was chosen for the connotations it evokes. A rose is a classic flower, just as Miss Emily is a classic example of an aristocrat from the antebellum South. Both are traditional and rather old-fashioned. Additionally, a rose is a traditional symbol of romance, and so it is relevant to the love story that Miss Emily was never really able to have. 

Does being an introverted person automatically mean being a quiet person?

Introversion is part of a psychological theory developed by Carl Jung that attempts to describe people by positioning them along four axes and dividing them into 16 distinct personality types. 

First, it should be noted that within Jung's theory, introversion and extroversion formed an axis, with most people belonging closer to the middle than at the extreme ends. The second issue is that this is only one of many parts of a single theory of personality which uses many factors to characterize people, not a set of simple set of distinct scientific categories such as hydrogen versus helium.

Introversion simply means that people are more inner than outer directed, often developing ideas on their own and being less focused on external rewards and social interactions than on their own goals and interests. That means that introverts are often less sociable than extroverts and prefer spending more time along. 

Introversion is not the same as shyness. Introverts are not necessarily more or less talkative than extroverts when they do socialize and thus introverts can either be quiet or loud or talkative or silent.

Where is Victor taken after Henry is murdered?

After Victor has destroyed the female companion he'd promised to make for his creature, he rows out into the sea to dump his equipment into the water.  He does so, and he feels so much better after that he decides to stay out and enjoy the night.  He falls asleep in the boat and when he awakens, it is daylight and he has no idea where he is.  He eventually sees land, and sails in its direction, and when he comes ashore, he learns from the inhabitants that he is in Ireland.  

He is compelled by these individuals to see Mr. Kirwin, the magistrate, because they believe that Victor is the murderer of a man found the night before.  He learns that the murdered man was strangled and sees the body, recognizing it as his friend's.  At this point, he becomes extremely ill for the next two months, and when he wakes up he is "surrounded by gaolers, turnkeys, bolts, and all the miserable apparatus of a dungeon."  In short, Victor is in an Irish prison (albeit in the nicest room in the prison because Mr. Kirwin took pity on him).  

How does color play an important role in Part 2 of Julie of the Wolves?

This is a very interesting question because it has to do with the differences between the places where the young Julie is living:  the seal camp near the Alaskan village of Mekoryuk, her aunt's house in Mekoryuk (where Julie is "Americanized"), and her marital home in Barrow, Alaska.

When Julie is living out her childhood in the seal camp near Mekoryuk, Julie's life is described as "infinitely good."  The reason why is because Julie is learning the "old ways" of the Eskimo people in harmony with nature.  As a result, all of the colors in this section compare with the earthly colors of a small town near the coast of Alaska.  There are a lot of grays, browns, and tans involved here:  the colors of furs, seals, and the coast.

When Julie is "Americanized" at her Aunt Martha's house, the most important color is blue because of her pen pal's reference to the interesting idea of "blue jeans."  These "blue jeans" come to represent the "civilized" world of San Francisco and the mainland.  As Julie continues in school, she longs to go live with Amy in San Francisco and wear "blue jeans" herself.

The colors are all dulled (and almost non-existent) after Julie is forced to marry and move to Barrow.  Most striking are Daniel's "dull eyes" when Julie first sees him.  The dulled colors of this part are a direct reference to Julie's misery and to the mental illness of her husband.

What does Atticus mean when he says they can shoot all the bluejays, but not the mockingbirds?

Atticus does not like guns, but he also does not expect his children to share his feelings.  Scout and Jem receive air rifles as gifts for Christmas.  Uncle Jack shows them how to shoot the air rifles.  Though Atticus does not like guns, he does offer advice on the topic:

"I'd rather you shot at tin cans in the back yard, but I know you'll go after birds.  Shoot all the bluejays you want, if you can hit 'em, but remember it's a sin to kill a mockingbird" (To Kill a Mockingbird, Chapter 10).

Though Atticus prefers his children not to shoot birds, he knows that they will.  He tells them that if they do choose to shoot birds, to go after bluejays.  He specifically instructs them not to shoot at mockingbirds.  He thinks that it is wrong to shoot mockingbirds because they are innocent.  They sing and do no harm, unlike some other birds.  This advice shows the method of parenting Atticus prefers.  He usually does not command his children not to do things.  Instead, he reasons with them.

What is screening for cancer?

Cancers diagnosed: The most common cancer screenings detect breast, cervical, colorectal, and prostate cancer. Some require a blood test, while others require more extensive screening procedures.

Why performed: The purpose of screening tests is to allow early identification of cancer and prevent the progression of any existing cancer. Screening and early detection can save human lives, minimize the trauma of cancer illness, and conserve limited health care resources spent on costly cancer therapies.

People participate in screenings for various reasons. Sometimes they see screening as a preventive measure, and sometimes they undergo screening because they are at high risk for a cancer. Often health-conscious people participate in routine cancer screenings, and their health insurance pays the bill. Medicare (health insurance for older adults and the disabled) Part B covers certain key preventive cancer screening tests such as colorectal screening, mammograms, Pap smears and pelvic examinations, and prostate cancer screenings within certain parameters.

Screening for cancer offers many advantages for the public. Screening can save the life of someone who may have died without early intervention. When cancer is discovered, treatment can be started immediately and decrease the possibility of radical surgery or therapy. Early intervention also results in lower health care costs. A primary advantage is that the person who receives negative (benign) results has peace of mind that, at that point in time, cancer is not present. This is reassuring for anyone but especially for someone with a family history of cancer or who has other high risks for cancer.

However, the disadvantage of screening is that some false negatives may occur so the person does not believe there is a problem even when symptoms surface. Conversely, “false positives” can cause undue anxiety until further tests confirm there is no cancer. Sometimes the screening finds a cancer that is not treatable or is so advanced that the screening does not alter the negative outcome for the person. Another disadvantage is that borderline reports from cancer screenings can result in excessive testing and associated costs.

Breast self-exam (BSE): Breast cancer can be detected through several screening tests. One is palpation of the breast tissue through a monthly breast self-examination (BSE). Palpation is a noninvasive way to examine and screen for abnormalities in the breast such as cysts, lumps, or thickening. The patient can be taught to do an examination of her breasts each month and note visual or palpable changes in the breasts.

Patient preparation. The patient should stand unclothed from the waist up and view her breasts in a mirror. The best time to complete an examination is a few days after the completion of the menses, when swelling and tenderness are lessened.

Steps of the procedure. A breast self-examination is a five-step process:

• The woman observes her breasts in the mirror, with her hands on her hips, for any visual changes in color, shape, and size. She looks for dimpling, swelling, or puckering of the skin as well as changes in the nipples or redness or rash on the breast.





• She raises her arms over her head and observes the same as above.





• She gently squeezes the nipples and observes for any liquid or discharge. (None should be present unless the woman is breast-feeding.)





• She lies down and examines each breast with the opposite hand in a circular pattern, starting at the nipple and working outward. She palpates all breast tissue from the collarbone to the abdomen and from the armpit to the cleavage area.





• She palpates the breast again in a sitting or standing position in the same pattern. Some women find that the examination is best completed when the skin is wet and slippery, such as in the shower.

After the procedure. The woman should record any observation and the date of each examination in a journal to be sure that it is completed monthly, preferably after the menses. This simple screening can detect early changes in the woman’s breasts.

Risks. None.

Results. The woman makes an appointment with her health care provider if abnormalities are noted. She should schedule her annual examination with the health care provider, which includes a clinical breast exam (CBE).

Mammograms: A screening mammogram uses x-rays to detect breast cancer. Mammography offers a noninvasive way to screen the breasts for cancer. A screening mammogram is useful when a woman has no history of problems with her breasts. Two x-ray views are taken of each breast. Scheduling the mammogram a week after the menses can decrease the patient’s discomfort, as hormonal soreness or tenderness is less at that time. An annual screening mammogram is recommended primarily for women over the age of forty. A screening mammogram can detect suspicious areas that may be breast cancer long before a mass can be palpated.

Patient preparation. The patient should avoid use of powders, deodorant, or lotion before the mammogram, since particles from these products can be viewed as abnormalities on the x-ray. The patient completes paperwork such as her history, last menses, risk factors, childbearing, surgeries, implants, birth control, hormone therapy, or any problems. The patient undresses from the waist up and wears an examination gown into the x-ray room. The patient can expect the x-rays to take about a half hour.

Steps of the procedure. The patient stands in front of the x-ray machine. A radiology technician exposes one breast at a time and places it on a film holder; the breast is compressed for a few seconds between the holder and a plastic paddle to take the x-ray. Good compression is necessary for accurate x-rays. Next the patient moves her side toward the machine, and the breast is compressed from the side. The x-ray is repeated.

After the procedure. A radiologist reads the x-ray either immediately or at a later time, depending on the facility’s availability to the radiologist.

Risks. The risk of radiation exposure through a screening mammogram is considered minimal. Most authorities agree that the benefit of screening for breast cancer outweighs the risk of low-dose radiation.

Results. Screening mammograms do not detect breast cancer 100 percent accurately. A normal result means that the mammogram detects no abnormalities, though a cancer can be hidden in dense breast tissue. Screening mammograms may be read as borderline, which may suggest that further testing (such as a diagnostic mammogram, ultrasound, or biopsy) is indicated to confirm the diagnosis of breast cancer.

Pap smear: The Pap smear is a screening test to detect changes in the cervix that may lead to cervical cancer in women. Early detection can increase the chance of successful treatment. All women need this screening examination, including sexually active women over the age of eighteen and those at risk for cervical cancer, such as women who had a previous abnormal pap smear. This test is usually performed during the woman’s annual gynecological exam.

Patient preparation. The woman should avoid douching or using any vaginal medications within forty-eight hours of the test. For accurate results, she should avoid intercourse within twenty-four hours of the screening. Optimal time for a Pap smear is at midcycle of the menses; a Pap smear cannot be performed during the menses. The woman should empty her bladder before the test to decrease discomfort.

Steps of the procedure. The Pap smear does not take long to perform. The patient lies on her back with her knees bent and her feet slightly apart. The health care provider will lubricate a speculum (an instrument that holds the walls of the vagina apart) and place it into the vagina. The patient will feel pressure as the provider swabs the cervix for a sample to examine. The sample is swabbed on a glass slide and sprayed with preservative. The slide is sent to the lab for microscopic examination for abnormal cells.

After the procedure. There are usually no side effects of this test. The lab results will be sent to the patient.

Risks. One risk is a false positive, which would lead to further testing, or a false negative, which might cause the person to ignore other warning signs of cervical cancer.

Results. Results are categorized as negative if no abnormal cells are seen. The patient usually receives a written notification of the results. Patients need to seek further testing from their health care provider for abnormalities.

Fecal occult blood, sigmoidoscopy, colonscopy: Colon cancer is the third leading cause of cancer death in the United States. The first screening test for colon cancer is the fecal occult blood sample. This test detects blood in the stool. The next screening is a sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy. Regular rectal and colon screening is advised in persons over fifty years of age and in those at high risk. This includes a fecal test annually, a sigmoidoscopy every five years, and a colonoscopy every ten years after age fifty-five.

Patient preparation. Certain medications (aspirin and aspirin products, ibuprofen products, iron tablets, and vitamin supplements) should be avoided for a week before screening. Prescribed medications can usually be taken, but the physician should be consulted. A sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy requires preparation of the bowel. The exact preparation used may vary by provider preference, but these preparations usually include a diet of clear liquids for twenty-four hours prior to the test as well as a liquid laxative about two to four hours before the examination.

Steps of the procedure. Both a sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy require the insertion of a rigid or flexible tube that contains a lens and a light into the colon. The provider can visualize the rectum, lower colon (or sigmoid colon), or upper colon.

After the procedure. Patients may need someone to drive them home after this test, especially if they have sedation. The patient can experience some soreness and mild cramping due to the air that was injected into the colon for the test, but this condition improves as the air is passed. No other aftercare is required.

Risks. A slight risk of bleeding is possible, especially when the patient has decreased clotting capacity. A perforated (torn) colon is a serious but rare complication following a sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy.

Results. A normal result is one where the colon walls are smooth and without polyps, inflammation, or tumors. An abnormal result would be present when the colon shows precancerous polyps or tumors. A biopsy and surgical removal of the polyps or tumors would be scheduled.

Digital rectal exam (DRE) and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test: Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of death in men. By the age of fifty, men should have screening tests for prostate cancer; in high-risk men, screening should start at the age of forty-five. The main screening tests for prostate cancer are digital rectal exam (DRE) and the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test. The prostate is the male reproductive organ located under the bladder and in front of the rectum.

Patient preparation. No special preparation is required.

Steps of the procedure. For the digital rectal exam, the patient is dressed in an examination gown and placed in a relaxed position (such as lying on his side or resting over an exam table) with the rectum accessible. The doctor inserts a well-lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum and feels the size of the prostate.

After the procedure. No residual patient discomfort occurs.

Risks. None.

Results. If abnormal results are reported from either the digital rectal exam or prostate-specific antigen test, the patient will need further testing to confirm a cancer diagnosis.

“Cancer Screening Overview: What Is Cancer Screening?” National Cancer Institute. Natl. Inst. of Health, 2 July 2014. Web. 22 January 2015.

Elit, Laurie. Cervical Cancer: Screening Methods, Risk Factors and Treatment Options. New York: Nova Biomedical, 2014. Print.

Finkel, Madelon L. Understanding the Mammography Controversy: Science, Politics, and Breast Cancer Screening. Westport: Praeger, 2005. Print.

Miller, Anthony B., ed. Advances in Cancer Screening. Boston: Kluwer, 1996. Print.

Querna, Elizabeth. “Breast Cancer Screening: What Is the Best Way to Find Out If You Have the Disease?” US News & World Report 9 Sept. 2004. Print.

Scholefield, John, and Cathy Eng. Colorectal Cancer: Diagnosis and Clinical Management. Hoboken: Wiley, 2014. Print.

In "To the doctor who treated the raped baby and who felt such despair," the word "and" is repeated at the beginning of seven different lines. How...

“To the doctor who treated the raped baby and who felt such despair” is a poem written by South African poet Finuala Dowling.

First, let’s start with a brief summary. As the title suggests, the poem is written to a doctor who’s treating a baby who has been raped. The poem contrasts lines (these are the ones that start with “and”) about the doctor’s actions with lines about normal nighttime activities in normal families, where parents care for their children. This contrast highlights the cruelty of the child’s assault, placing kind, normal actions next to tragedy.

As I mentioned, the lines about the doctor’s actions all begin with the word “and.” There are a couple ways to interpret this use. On a structural level, any time “and” is used repeatedly at the beginning of a line in a poem, it usually builds momentum and flow. Think about it this way – when we talk, we often use “and” to link our sentences rather than creating neat, complete ones. For example, “I was talking to her and she said hi and we talked for a while and then I left” sounds more natural than “I was talking to her. She said hi. We talked for a while. I left.” So on one level, the repeated use of “and” structurally ties the poem together, building momentum and making the poem read in one breath rather than distinct sentences. It’s a “real” voice, rather than a performative one.

In terms of content, the use of “and” reinforces the distinction between the doctor’s work and normalcy. Dowling writes, “and when you called for more blood / a bleary-eyed uncle got up to make a feed / and while you stitched / there was another chapter of a favourite story.” Dowling repeatedly lets her reader out of the tragedy, showing them a quiet scene, showing them a child who is well, then uses “and” to pull the reader back to the baby who is hurt, back into a scene that should not have happened.

An analysis done for a related question about this poem can be found at the link below.

What is self-actualization?

Introduction

Self-actualization—as a concept, a theory, and a model—has extended the domain and impact of psychology. Humanistic psychology—a branch of psychology that emphasizes growth and fulfillment, autonomy, choice, responsibility, and ultimate values such as truth, love, and justice—has become an important paradigm for understanding personality, psychopathology, and therapy. Applications have been extensive in education, counseling, religion, and business. Suggesting action and implying consequences, self-actualization holds clear and significant implications regarding the dimensions of psychology, the basic conception of humankind, and the functions and organization of society.

Self-actualization is often defined as a process of growing and fulfilling one’s potential, of being self-directed and integrated, and of moving toward full humanness. The most complete description of the self-actualizing person has been provided by the psychologist Abraham Maslow, who devoted much of his professional life to the study of exceptional individuals. Maslow abstracted several ways in which self-actualizing people could be characterized.

Characterizing Self-Actualizers

Compared with ordinary or average persons, self-actualizing persons, as Maslow describes them, may be characterized as follows: They show a more efficient and accurate perception of reality, seeing things as they really are rather than as distortions based on wishes or neurotic needs. They accept themselves, others, and nature as they are. They are spontaneous both in behavior and in thinking, and they focus on problems outside themselves rather than being self-centered. Self-actualizing persons enjoy and need solitude and privacy; are autonomous, with the ability to transcend culture and environment; have a freshness of appreciation, taking pleasure and finding wonder in the everyday world; and have peak experiences or ecstatic, mystic feelings that provide special meaning to everyday life. They show social interest, which is a deep feeling of empathy, sympathy, identification, and compassionate affection for humankind in general, and have deep interpersonal relationships with others. They carry a democratic character structure that includes humility, respect for everyone, and an emphasis on common bonds rather than differences; they distinguish between means and ends, and they possess a clear sense of ethics. Self-actualizers have a philosophical and unhostile sense of humor, and they are creative and inventive in an everyday sense. They are resistant to enculturation, with a degree of detachment and autonomy greater than that found in people who are motivated simply to adjust to and go along with their own in-groups or society. Their value system results from their great acceptance of self and others and easily resolves or transcends many dichotomies (such as work/pleasure, selfish/unselfish, good/bad) that others view as absolute opposites.

Carl R. Rogers, another influential humanistic psychologist, characterized the fully functioning person in ways that parallel Maslow’s description. Rogers’s theory holds that people have an actualizing tendency, which is an inherent striving to actualize, maintain, and enhance the organism. When people function according to valuing processes based within them and are therefore following their actualizing tendency, experiences can be accurately symbolized into awareness and efficiently communicated. Thus, according to Rogers, full humanness involves openness to experiences of all kinds without distorting them. People thus open to experience will show a flexible, existential kind of living that allows change, adaptability, and a sense of flow. These people trust their own internal feelings of what is right, and they use the self as their basis for and guide to behavior. Rogers, like Maslow, holds that such people do not necessarily adjust or conform to cultural prescriptions, but nevertheless they do live constructively.

Rogers, Maslow, and most self-actualization theorists present an optimistic and favorable view of human nature. Unlike Sigmund Freud and classical psychoanalysts, who believed humans to be basically irrational and human impulses to require control through socialization and other societal constraints, self-actualization theorists regard human nature as constructive, trustworthy, positive, forward moving, rational, and possessing an inherent capacity to realize or actualize itself.

Positive and Negative Reaction

Although Maslow approached his study of growing individuals from a somewhat more absolute, rational theoretical perspective than Rogers, who came from a more relativistic, phenomenological, and clinical direction, the theorizing and empirical observations of both psychologists converge on a similar description of a self-actualizing or a fully functioning person who makes full use of capacities and potentialities. Such descriptions have aroused much positive as well as negative reaction. One reason is the implicit suggestion that humankind can or should be self-actualizing. The values of actualizing one’s self—of fulfilling one’s potentials and possessing the characteristics described by Maslow and Rogers—are always implied. Thus, self-actualization is more than a psychological construct; it becomes a possible ethic. Many humanistic proponents have viewed values as necessary in their theorizing; Maslow made an impassioned plea that values, crucial to the development of humanistic psychology, be integrated into science.

Critics of self-actualization theory have argued that it reflects the theorists’ own values and individualist ideology; that it neglects sociohistorical and cultural changes by being rooted in unchanging biology; that there may be social-class or cultural bias in the descriptions; that the concept may be misused and encourage the creation of a cultural aristocracy of “superior” people; and that many people may well choose an ideal self that does not match Maslow’s characterization. In addition, critics have misunderstood the concept by erroneously thinking that self-actualizing is synonymous with selfishness and self-indulgence or is consistent with asocial or antisocial behavior. In fact, Maslow and Rogers described self-actualizers as not being overly concerned with themselves, but as typically engaged in larger issues and problems such as poverty, bigotry, warfare, and environmental concerns; as having a highly ethical nature; and as having relationships with others that have a positive and even therapeutic quality.

The various criticisms and arguments surrounding self-actualization have led to clarifications and improvements in understanding the concept, and they attest to the vitality of this major, provocative, and influential psychological construct.

A Positive Growth Model

Self-actualization presents a growth model that can be and has been used in diverse areas such as counseling, education, and business. In addition, there are implications for people’s way of conceptualizing humankind and for structuring institutions and organizing society.

As a model for therapists and counselors and their clients, self-actualization is an alternative to the medical or illness model, which implies that the person coming to the therapist is beset by disease and requires a cure, often from some external source or authority. The self-actualization model represents a positive process, a fostering of strengths. It is concerned with growth choices, self-knowledge, being fully human, and realizing one’s potential; yet it also encompasses an understanding of anxiety, defenses, and obstacles to growth. Psychological education, facilitation of growth, self-help and self-learning, and counseling to deal with problems of living and with dysfunctional defenses all are implied in the self-actualization model for human fulfillment and actualization of potentials. This model also avoids problems associated with an adjustment model, in which therapists may socialize conformity or adjustment to a particular status quo or societal mainstream.

Rogers employed the model in his nondirective, person-centered therapy, later called the person-centered approach. Grounded in trust and emphasizing the therapist’s unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness, this therapy system allows the client’s natural and healthy growth tendencies and organismic valuing processes to determine choices and behaviors. Much research has supported the importance of these therapist characteristics and has documented the increased congruence and process of growth of clients, beginning with Rogers’s own empirical research explorations. Rogers’s approach to counseling has become one of the most influential in the psychotherapy field.

Use in Workplace Management

Maslow’s application of self-actualization theory to management represents another very influential contribution. Douglas McGregor described a humanistic theory of management (theory Y) that respects human rights and treats workers as individuals. This theory was contrasted with theory X, a managerial view that holds that people dislike work and must therefore be controlled, coerced, conditioned, or externally reinforced to obtain high work productivity. Maslow’s own book on management assumes the existence of higher needs in all workers that, if met in the world of work, would demonstrate the inherent creativity and responsibility of workers and result in greater satisfaction, increased self-direction, and also greater work productivity. Many influential management theorists, including McGregor, Rensis Likert, and Chris Argyris, have acknowledged Maslow’s influence. Many field and research studies have supported the value of the self-actualization model as applied to management. Maslow contended that such enlightened management policies are necessary for interacting with a growing, actualizing population; in the world of work, as elsewhere, the highest levels of efficiency can be obtained only by taking full account of the need for self-actualization that is present in everyone.

Examining Synergic Societies

One of the major conclusions and implications stemming from the self-actualization model is that a synergic society can evolve naturally from the present social system; such a society would be one in which every person may reach a high level of fulfillment.

Ruth Benedict
tried to account for differences in societies that related to the overall human fulfillment they could afford their citizens. She prepared brief descriptions of four pairs of cultures. One of each pair was an insecure society, described as nasty, surly, and anxious, with low levels of moral behavior and high levels of hatred and aggression. The contrasting culture was a secure one, described as comfortable, showing affection and niceness. The concept of synergy differentiated these two groups. In high-synergy societies, social arrangements allowed for mutually reinforcing acts that would benefit both individual people and the group; these societies were characterized by nonaggression and cooperation. In low-synergy societies, the social structure provided for mutually opposed and counteractive acts, whereby one individual could or must benefit at the expense of others; these were the cultures in which aggression, insecurity, and rivalry were conspicuous.

Roderic Gorney described how the absolute amount of wealth in a society did not determine the degree of synergy or quality of life in that society. More crucial, he found, were the economic arrangements within the society—whether the resources were concentrated among a “have” group (low synergy) or were dispersed widely to all (high synergy). Gorney argued that low-synergy arrangements in societies promoted higher levels of aggression and mental disorder. Thus, to minimize aggression and mental disorder and to promote self-development and zestful investment in living and learning, Gorney specified that a society should increase the degree of synergy fostered by its institutions.

Thus, the self-actualization model and theory have clear implications for societies and their political and economic structures. The model suggests action and implies consequences. It stresses a particular type of relationship between the society and the individual as a social being. The commingling of individual and social concerns and involvements translates self-actualization theory into practical consequences and is precisely what Maslow described as characterizing his self-actualizers. Self-actualizing people easily resolve superficial dichotomies, and choices are not inevitably seen as “either/or.” Work and play, lust and love, self-love and love for others need not be opposites. Maslow described the individual-societal holism by noting that self-actualizing people were not only the best experiencers but also the most compassionate people, the great reformers of society, and the most effective workers against injustice, inequality, and other social ills.

Thus, what self-actualization theory suggests is an integration of self-improvement and social zeal; Maslow held that both can occur simultaneously.

Influences and Contributors

The development of the self-actualization concept was influenced by many sources. Carl Jung, Otto Rank, and Alfred Adler, departing from Freud’s classical psychoanalytic formulations, emphasized the importance of individuality and social dimensions. Jung, credited with being the first to use the term “self-actualization,” developed the concept of the self as a goal of life; self-actualization meant a complete differentiation and harmonious blending of the many aspects of personality. Rank emphasized the necessity of expressing one’s individuality to be creative. Adler described self-actualization motives with the concept of striving for superiority or for perfection; this innate striving, or great upward drive, was a prepotent dynamic principle of human development. Adler also believed that a constructive working toward perfection (of self and society) would result from a loving, trustworthy early social environment.

Kurt Goldstein, the first psychologist who explicitly used self-actualization as the master motive or most basic sovereign drive, was a leading exponent of organismic theory; this approach emphasized unity, consistency, coherence, and integrity of normal personality. Goldstein held self-actualization to be a universal phenomenon; all organisms tend to actualize their individual capacities and inner natures as much as possible. Prescott Lecky also propounded the achievement of a unified and self-consistent organization as the one developmental goal; his concepts of self-consistency and unified personality have much in common with organismic theory. Later, Gordon Allport stressed methods for studying the unique and undivided personality; he described motivation for normal adults as functionally autonomous, and in the individual’s conscious awareness. Fritz Perls’s Gestalt therapy emphasized here-and-now awareness and integrated personality.

Sociology and cultural anthropology influenced other theorists. Karen Horney spoke of the real self and its realization; Erich Fromm wrote of the “productive orientation,” combining productive work and productive love; and David Riesman described the autonomous person and theorized about inner- and other-directed personalities. Arthur Combs and Donald Snygg, influenced by the phenomenological approach, emphasized the maintenance and enhancement of the self as the inclusive human need motivating all behavior. Their description of the adequate self is quite similar to the contemporary description of self-actualization.

Existentialist views (existential psychology), emphasizing the present, free will, values and ultimate concerns, and subjective experience as a sufficient criterion of truth, influenced conceptualizing about self-actualization. Rollo May’s description of existential being is important in this respect.

From all these sources came the backdrop for the modern description of self-actualization: the emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual; a holistic, organismic, and phenomenological approach to human experience and conduct; and the need to discover a real self and to express, develop, and actualize that self.

Bibliography

Goble, Frank G. The Third Force: The Psychology of Abraham Maslow. New York: Pocket, 1978. Print.

Gold, Joshua M. “Spirituality and Self-Actualization: Considerations for Twenty-First-Century Counselors.” Journal of Humanistic Counseling 52.2 (2013): 223–34. OmniFile Full Text Mega (H.W. Wilson). Web. 30 June 2014.

Johnson, David R. Reaching Out: Interpersonal Effectiveness and Self-Actualization. 11th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2014. Print.

Jones, Alvin, and Rick Crandall, eds. “Handbook of Self-Actualization.” Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 5 (1991). Print.

LeDoux, Joseph. Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are. New York: Penguin, 2003. Print.

Maslow, Abraham Harold. Motivation and Personality. 3rd ed. New York: Harper, 1987. Print.

Maslow, Abraham Harold. Toward a Psychology of Being. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley, 1999. Print.

Poorsheikhali, Fatemah, and Hamid Alavi. “Correlation of Parents’ Religious Behavior with Family’s Emotional Relations and Students’ Self-Actualization.” Journal of Religion and Health Preprints (2014): 1–7. E-Journals. Web. 30 June 2014.

Rogers, Carl R. A Way of Being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995.Print.

Sullivan, Bob, and Herbert H. Thompson. Getting Unstuck: Break Free of the Plateau Effect. New York: Penguin, 2014. Print.

What is empyema?

Definition

Empyema is the collection of pus (a liquid that forms from leukocytes, cellular debris,
and protein) in a natural body cavity. Empyema should not be confused with an abscess, which develops its own cavity. Empyema is most
common in the pleural cavity, the space between the inside of the chest wall and
the lung. Empyema may also occur in other body cavities, such as the pelvis,
abdomen, subdural space, gallbladder, and the pericardial sac surrounding the heart.

Causes

Empyema is caused by an infection that leads to the development
of pus in a body cavity or space. The amount of pus in such an infection can be as
much as one pint (16 ounces), putting pressure on the adjacent body part or organ.
A variety of bacteria, such as
Staphylococcus aureus,
Streptococcus pneumoniae, and
Haemophilus influenzae, may cause empyema.

Risk Factors

Bacterial
infection is the primary risk factor for empyema. Lung
abscess, chest surgery, and injury or trauma to the chest are also risk factors
for pleural empyema. Cholecystitis with contaminated bile is
a risk factor for empyema of the gallbladder. People with chronic diseases may be
more likely to develop empyema. Cancer may also contribute to empyema
development.

Symptoms

Symptoms will vary based on the location of the empyema. Fever is almost always present. Sweating, especially at night, often occurs. Sharp or shooting pains, undesired weight loss, headache, and a general poor feeling may occur. For empyema in the pleural space or chest cavity, shortness of breath and difficulty breathing are usually evident. For empyema in the pelvic cavity, foul smelling pus is present. A rigid or very tight abdomen may be noted.

Screening and Diagnosis

Screening and diagnosis are based on symptoms and careful evaluation of the
physical condition of the infected person and his or her complaints. Decreased
breath sounds (heard through a stethoscope) are often noted if pleural empyema is
present. Taking a sample of pus from the pleural space by using a needle or
plastic catheter (thoracentesis) is sometimes done to look for the causative
bacteria. The doctor also will investigate any complaints of pain. Radiology
tests, including X rays and computed tomography (CT) scans, are often used.

Treatment and Therapy

The primary goals of therapy are to cure the infection and to drain the pus if
possible. Antibiotics are prescribed and may be given intravenously
(in a vein), which requires hospitalization. If pleural empyema is the diagnosis,
a chest tube inserted into the pleural cavity may be used to drain the pus from
the body. In rare cases, a procedure to peel away part of the lining of the lung
may be done so that the lung can inflate. In empyema of the gallbladder, surgery
to remove the gallbladder may be indicated. Other surgeries may be necessary,
depending on the site of the empyema.

Prevention and Outcomes

One can help prevent the development of empyema by treating infections promptly and using antibiotics appropriately.

Bibliography

Celli, B. R. “Diseases of the Diaphragm, Chest Wall, Pleura, and the Mediastinum.” In Cecil Medicine, edited by Lee Goldman and Dennis Arthur Ausiello. 23d ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2008.

Levitzky, Michael G. Pulmonary Physiology. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2007.

Madigan, Michael T., and John M. Martinko. Brock Biology of Microorganisms. 12th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2010.

Reed, James C. Chest Radiology: Plain Film Patterns and Differential Diagnoses. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby, 2003.

Weedon, David. Skin Pathology. 3d ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2010.

What is saffron as a dietary supplement?

Overview

The Mediterranean herb saffron, long used in cooking, is made from the dried stigma (top of the female portion) of the Crocus sativa flower. Each flower has only three small stigmas, and about seventy-five thousand flowers are needed to produce 1 pound of saffron. As a cooking herb, saffron is valued for its intense orange-yellow color and its subtle flavor.

Medicinally, saffron has been used since ancient times for strengthening digestion, relieving coughs, smoothing menstruation, relaxing muscle spasms, improving mood, and calming anxiety. Saffron contains vitamin B2
along with a yellow flavonoid called crocin, a bitter glycoside called picrocrocin, and the volatile, aromatic substance called safranal.

Uses and Applications

The best evidence for medicinal effects of saffron involve the treatment of depression. According to five preliminary double-blind studies, the use of saffron at 30 milligrams (mg) daily is more effective than placebo and just as effective as standard treatment for major depression. However, all these studies were small and preliminary and were performed by a single research group in Iran. Larger studies and independent confirmation is necessary to determine whether this expensive herb is truly effective for depression.

Other proposed uses of saffron have even weaker supporting evidence. Test-tube and animal studies hint that saffron and its constituents may help prevent or treat cancer, reduce cholesterol levels, protect against side effects of the drug cisplatin, and enhance mental function.

Dosage

In the foregoing studies of depression, saffron was used at a dose of 30 mg daily as an alcohol-based extract.

Safety Issues

Saffron appears to be safe. One study found no serious adverse effects among healthy volunteers given up to 200 mg per day of saffron for one week. It is often said that very high doses of saffron can cause abortion and possible toxic symptoms, but there is no scientific documentation of these supposed effects. However, the so-called meadow saffron, Colchicum autumnale, is highly toxic, and sometimes people mistake one for the other. Also, the safety of saffron use in young children, pregnant or nursing women, and people with severe liver or kidney disease has not been established.

Bibliography

Abdullaev, F. I., and J. J. Espinosa-Aguirre. “Biomedical Properties of Saffron and Its Potential Use in Cancer Therapy and Chemoprevention Trials.” Cancer Detection and Prevention 28 (2004): 426-432.

Gout, B., C. Bourges, and S. Paineau-Dubreuil. “Satiereal, a Crocus sativus L. Extract, Reduces Snacking and Increases Satiety in a Randomized Placebo-Controlled Study of Mildly Overweight, Healthy Women.” Nutrition Research 30 (2010): 305-313.

Modaghegh, M. H., et al. “Safety Evaluation of Saffron (Crocus sativus) Tablets in Healthy Volunteers.” Phytomedicine 15 (2008): 1032-1037.

Noorbala, A. A., et al. “Hydro-alcoholic Extract of Crocus sativus L. Versus Fluoxetine in the Treatment of Mild to Moderate Depression.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 97 (2005): 281-284.

What are the elements of abstraction in Stevens' poem "The Idea of Order at Key West?"

Wallace Stevens's poem "The Idea of Order at Key West" is an abstract poem that is difficult even for experts to comprehend. It is in part about the difference between the creation of art and reality.

The image at the beginning of the poem is a woman who is singing over the sea: "She sang beyond the genius of the sea" (line 1). In the second stanza, Stevens writes that he heard her, not the ocean and that the two sounds never joined fully: "The song and water were not medleyed sound" (line 9). In the third stanza, Stevens differentiates between the ocean and the singer: "For she was the maker of the song she sang. /The ever-hooded, tragic-gestured sea /Was merely a place by which she walked to sing" (lines 15-17). Stevens continues to struggle to define the difference between art and reality, and in the next stanza he says of the woman's voice "But it was more than that, /More even than her voice, and ours" (lines 28-29). In other words, her voice is not just voice, but it becomes more than just singing over the ocean. In the next stanza, which is the only one that is indented, he writes, "It was her voice that made /The sky acutest at its vanishing" (lines 34-35). In other words, her voice has had an effect on the sky as dusk appears. In the last stanza, he speaks to his friend, Ramon Fernandez, and notes that the lights from the town affect the ocean. He writes that the lights "Mastered the night and portioned out the sea" (line 49). In other words, the lights, man-made creations, affect the way the sea looks.

In the final stanza, Stevens cries out for a "rage for order" (line 52). In other words, he wants the creator of art to somehow control nature and connects this rage to our earliest incarnations as humans. The urge to control reality is strong in the artist, Stevens is saying, but the artist's "rage" suggests that it is difficult to do so. 

What is the significance of the title of Achebe's "Civil Peace"?

The title of Chinua Achebe’s short story “Civil Peace” is especially interesting because it is used in an ironic sense. The story follows Jonathan Iwegbu as he collects the fragments of his life after the end of the Nigerian Civil War. The Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Biafran War, was a protracted conflict that resulted because a section of Nigeria attempted to secede and form its own country. The war leaves a tremendous amount of destruction in its wake, and Jonathan gathers up what he can to reestablish his life. The title of the story is ironic because even though the war has come to an end, the area is still chaotic and filled with strife. Indeed, a gang of robbers use the term “civil peace” when they rob Iwegbu and his family in the dead of night:

“Awrighto. Now make we talk business. We no be bad tief. We no like for make trouble. Trouble done finish. War done finish and all the katakata wey de for inside. No Civil War again. This time na Civil Peace. No be so?” (87).

Thus, Achebe uses the title ironically to highlight the violence still present in a post-war Nigeria.

Which characters are healed when they come to the mountain? How are they healed?

Johanna Spyri’s classic piece of didactic Christian children’s literature Heidi illustrates the tale of Heidi and Clara Sesemann. Heidi travels to Frankfurt to work as a companion for the young invalid Clara. The story culminates when Heidi, who is homesick, decides to go back to her grandfather’s mountain in the Alps. She brings along her companion Clara, and the two young girls are healed—either physically or mentally—through the miraculous nature of the mountain. Heidi is no longer homesick once she arrives at the mountain, and she regains her health fairly quickly. The mountain is an idyllic, Edenic place where the young girls heal both spiritually and physically; they eat fresh, wholesome food and frolic in the mountain air. Over time, Clara is eventually able to walk:

“And Clara went on putting one foot out after another until all at once she called out, ‘I can do it, Heidi! look! look! I can make proper steps…. Clara still held on firmly to her supports, but with every step she felt safer on her feet, as all three became aware, and Heidi was beside herself with joy” (192).

This miraculous healing is attributed to Clara’s idyllic surroundings. More than that, though, her recovery is attributed to the Christian God. Indeed, Heidi is often praising the wisdom of God, and she reminds Clara to thank God for her new health:

“Both children said their prayers, and each thanked God in her own way for the blessing He had bestowed on Clara, who had for so long lain weak and ill” (196).

Thus, Heidi and Clara are the two characters who are most healed by the miraculous powers of the mountain, and Clara’s recovery especially is seen as a miracle derived from the power of the Christian God.

What effect did the Puritans have on democracy today?

The Puritans' efforts can be traced back to the Mayflower Compact in 1620, which was America's first contract style of government.  All adult males had to sign this pledge.  Wherever the Puritans went in New England, they were known for their town hall meetings and for governing locally.  The majority ruled at town hall meetings, which is a valuable part of American democracy to this day.  

Another example is the Puritan educational model.  Each  town of over fifty families had to provide a public school for the children.  The Puritans were offshoots of the Protestant Reformation which stated that people should be able to read the Bible.  While the Bible is not a standard textbook in American public school today, basic literacy is still something that public education strives to accomplish.  The Puritans also believed in the strength of a liberal arts education; to this day, America spends a great deal on education.  

`1/sqrt(2) + 1/sqrt(3) + 1/sqrt(4) + ... 1/sqrt(n) > sqrt(n), n>= 2` Use mathematical induction to prove the inequality for the indicated values of n.

To prove `1/sqrt(1)+1/sqrt(2)+1/sqrt(3)+1/sqrt(4)+........1/sqrt(n)>sqrt(n)`

n`>=2`

For n=2, `1/sqrt(1)+1/sqrt(2)~~1.707`

`sqrt(2)~~1.414`

`:. 1/sqrt(1)+1/sqrt(2)>sqrt(2)`

Let's assume that for k> 2 , `1/sqrt(1)+1/sqrt(2)+1/sqrt(3)+.....+1/sqrt(k)>sqrt(k)`

So, `1/sqrt(1)+1/sqrt(2)+1/sqrt(3)+....+1/sqrt(k)+1/sqrt(k+1)>1/sqrt(k+1)`

or let's show that `sqrt(k)+1/sqrt(k+1)>sqrt(k+1)` ,k>2

Multiply the above inequality by `sqrt(k+1)`

`sqrt(k)sqrt(k+1)+1>(k+1)`

Rewriting the above inequality as below; shows that the above is true , 

`sqrt(k)sqrt(k+1)+1>sqrt(k)sqrt(k)+1`

`:. 1/sqrt(1)+1/sqrt(2)+1/sqrt(3)+......+1/sqrt(k)+1/sqrt(k+1)>sqrt(k+1)`

By the extended mathematical induction, the inequality is valid for all n,n`>=2`

In what ways does race shape Hurston's sense of identity?

In her 1928 essay, How it Feels to be Colored Me,  Zora Neale Hurston describes her relationship with her racial identity, with special consideration for the changes that occurred after her mother's death. As a child in the post-Emancipation, pre-Civil Rights South, Hurston lived a relatively protected and happy life. She grew up in an all-Black town in Florida and so was spared the kind of oppression and violence which was commonplace in other parts of the country. After her mother's death, Hurston was sent to a boarding school where for the first time, she was keenly aware of the oppression of Black Americans and what this meant as a lived reality. 

Though Hurston came to understand that others saw her as "Colored" and that this had societal connotations, she wrote in her essay that she does not always feel Colored. Hurston did not feel that she embodied the sort of tragic, sorrowful reality Colored people were associated with. It was only in the context of other people seeing her as Colored that race played a part in her identity. In fact, Hurston was quite defiant of the idea that her skin color somehow demanded a tragic existence. 

What are some types of imperialism?

There are different kinds of imperialism. One kind of imperialism is economic imperialism. Economic imperialism is when a country takes over another country so it can benefit economically. Great Britain wanted to have colonies so it could get resources for its factories. They could get these resources cheaper by getting them from their colonies rather than by buying them from other countries. Great Britain also would get to sell the products from its factories in the colonies. Great Britain would benefit economically from this arrangement.

Another kind of imperialism is political imperialism. Political imperialism is when a country controls the political system of other countries. This allows the imperial power to expand its control around the world. The British had colonies in North America and controlled the political system of the colonies. They also had colonies in other parts of the world. By controlling these places, Great Britain could establish military bases throughout the world. These bases enabled the British military to protect and defend the lands they controlled. By controlling different colonies around the world, Great Britain was viewed as a world power.

The third type of imperialism is cultural imperialism. Cultural imperialism is when a country controls another country to spread what it believes is a superior way of life. The imperial power views the places it is controlling as needing guidance in developing an educational system, in improving the medical practices of the people, and in showing the people how to lead productive lives. At times, cultural imperialism involves the spreading of a religion, often Christianity, through the work of missionaries. The imperial power believes it can help people around the world by spreading its way of life, its religion, and its way of doing various activities.

There are several different kinds of imperialism. Cultural, political, and economic imperialism have existed in many places throughout the world.

How and why do William Shakespeare's Romeo & Juliet and Hamlet speak to us today in a strong way?

Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet are two of Shakespeare’s most iconic plays. Both have gripping plots, poetic language, and memorable characters.

Romeo and Juliet is the famous tale of “A pair of star-cross’d lovers,” a story that has been retold many times. Two of the most popular adaptations in the 20th century are the musical West Side Story (filmed in 1961) and Baz Luhrmann’s Romeo + Juliet (1996), both of which were portrayed in a contemporary setting. Because both war and love have been part of human nature for millennia, the story of forbidden romance can be portrayed in nearly any culture. Shakespeare’s version, which was not the original, is particularly timeless, due to vivid characters such as Juliet’s bawdy nurse and Romeo’s imaginative and volatile friend Mercutio. The play also has beautiful poetry that depicts the passion of love (such as Romeo’s “what light through yonder window breaks?” speech) and words of wisdom about the futility of violence.

Hamlet is a philosophical tale of intrigue that keeps spectators in suspense. The title character has captured the imagination of scholars and audiences all over the world. He is a lone, changeable figure, full of contradiction and doubt. Many say he is an early depiction of modern man. Hamlet differs from Laertes, for example, a man of action who lives as he feels. Hamlet reacts to the world around him, doubting everyone and everything in his quest for vengeance. He often meditates on the senselessness of life. In one of many monologues, Hamlet marvels at the existence of mankind:

What a piece of work is a man! ... in action how like an angel! in apprehension how like a god! the beauty of the world! the paragon of animals! And yet, to me, what is this quintessence of dust?

There are countless reasons why both Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet remain so powerful, including their adaptability, complex characters, exciting plots, and magnificent language.

Where can I find information on the Plurality of Worlds by Bernard le Dobier de Fontielle?

The first thing that will help you in your search is clarifying your question. When you search for the title On the Plurality of Worlds, most search engines will return references to the 1986 work by the philosopher David Lewis, which was a landmark in a certain area of contemporary analytic philosophy focused on possible world semantics.

The book I think you have on mind is Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle's 1686 work, Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds. The work is a dialogue in which a philosopher and an aristocrat walk in a garden at night watching the stars, and the philosopher explains the heliocentric model of the solar system and speculates about the possibility of life on other worlds. He argues that astronomical observations show rivers and other features on the moon and that microscopes show life to be ubiquitous.

A useful summary of the book can be found at:

http://www.science20.com/between_death_and_data/fontenelle%E2%80%99s_conversations_1686_popular_science_writing_its_very_best-76400

You can find English translations of the French original for free on two websites:

https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6981190M/Conversations_on_the_plurality_of_worlds.

https://books.google.com/books?id=VGoFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Fontenelle+Bernard+inauthor:Fontenelle#v=onepage&q=Fontenelle%20Bernard%20inauthor%3AFontenelle&f=false

What is pain?

Causes and Symptoms

Not all causes of pain are known or understood. Some basic causes of the most commonly reported pain include inflammation, as in arthritis, rheumatism, and infection; work-related and sports-related injuries; stress and tension; nerve pain, as from shingles, diabetic neuropathy, and sciatica; and pain related to such diseases as osteoporosis and cancer.

People have similar pain thresholds but different levels of pain tolerance, or how much pain they can bear. One congenital anomaly actually inhibits or eliminates the perception of pain. Pain tolerance is therefore subjective and can be influenced by socioeconomic status, cultural background, and socialization, with disparities noted in who suffers pain, what type of pain a person suffers, and how pain is perceived by the individual.

The most commonly reported types of pain are associated with the lower back, with severe or migraine headaches, and with joint pain, particularly in the knees. Physiological pain is a response of the body that is associated with tissue damage or inflammation, typically serving as a warning system to alert the body to potential physical harm. Although pain may be produced without a defined stimulus, as in the case of emotional or psychological pain, physiological pain is transmitted through stimulation of nerve pathways, a process called nociception. Nociceptors are free, sensitive nerve endings located outside the spinal column; they are found in skin and on internal surfaces, such as on the joints. When stimulated, nociceptors send signals through sensory neurons to the posterior horn of the spinal cord that are then transmitted to other nerve fibers, which travel upward through the brain stem to the thalamus, the gateway to conscious action in the brain. There, information is coordinated and localized and then sent to the cerebral cortex, where a conscious reaction to the stimulus is produced.

Pain is said to be "referred" when it is experienced at a location other than its site of origin. This occurs when nerve fibers carrying pain messages enter the spinal cord at the same place as other nerve fibers from other parts of the body using the same pathways. The other nerve fibers may become stimulated and result in painful perceptions in healthy areas of the body, such as referred pain from the heart to the neck, arm, and stomach.

Among theories of pain transmission, the gate-control theory of Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall helps explain the differing degrees of pain that people may suffer. It is related to the amount of substance P (SP), a peptide found in nerve cells throughout the body, that actually reaches the brain. The transmission of neurons is generally very rapid, as when touching a hot stove produces immediate action to protect the body from damage. Messages carried by substance P, however, travel more slowly, since they must pass through a special gateway in the spinal cord. At the same time, pain signals are also prompting the brain to release chemical endorphins, the body’s natural painkillers, which must also pass downward through the same gate. Thus, there is some competition for passage, and the fewer receptors for substance P that actually arrive in the brain and attach to nerve cells there, the lower the pain perception. With healing, the gate closes, but when chronic pain occurs, it remains open even after healing or without an identified underlying cause.

The two basic types of pain are chronic and acute. Acute pain comes on suddenly and, although extreme, is generally brief in duration. It is a warning to the body about damage or disease, is localized, and is more easily treated. Chronic pain occurs daily and lasts longer than would be common for a specific injury. It no longer serves to warn and is much more difficult to treat, although most sufferers can be helped. Chronic pain may last beyond resolution of an underlying cause, or it may grow out of an acute condition. In this case, it may become a learned response that no longer has a purpose but continues to hurt. Chronic pain may also occur without any apparent cause, creating disability, depression, and suffering.

Pain may be medically classified as either superficial or deep. Superficial pain, also called fast or cutaneous pain, is carried by nerve fibers on the skin and outer linings of the organs. These nerve fibers are plentiful in the intestines, cornea, and nose, for example, and pain messages are quickly delivered to the brain, such as when one is cut or burned. Also termed somatic pain, it is experienced as intense or burning. Kidney stones or acid reflux from the stomach may create waves of this burning pain. Deep pain, on the other hand, also referred to as slow or visceral pain, comes from nerve fibers located in muscles, bones, and tissues of the internal organs, and it travels more slowly, taking longer to reach the brain. It may be experienced as dull aching or throbbing pain. The two types of pain may occur at the same time.

Treatment and Therapy

The major treatment for pain in the United States has been analgesic medications, or drug therapy, with sufferers spending over an estimated $18 billion a year for relief in the form of both prescription and over-the-counter medications. There are no standard guidelines for the use of analgesics, since the degree of relief varies from one patient to another. These medications are classified as either narcotic, such as morphine and other opioid addictive drugs, or nonnarcotic, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and acetaminophen. Because patients respond differently and many analgesics can carry significant side effects with cardiovascular, renal, and gastrointestinal toxicity, the lowest dose of the preferred medication is usually recommended to start. Painkillers must often be administered with other medications directed to the underlying cause of the pain, so they must be compatible.

One subcategory of nonnarcotic analgesics is nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Another alternative, acetaminophen, addresses pain but has no effect on inflammation. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors are nonnarcotic analgesics that suppress the COX-2 enzyme, which triggers inflammation. Although these drugs are seemingly well tolerated and effective, many of them were found to endanger the heart, and several were withdrawn from the market.

Narcotic analgesics are the most effective, but long-term use can create dependency, and these drugs are stringently restricted in the United States by state and federal laws. Doctors have therefore been hesitant to use them for severe chronic pain, even in patients dying from cancer or other painful diseases, when other medications are not working. This situation appears to be changing.

Nondrug therapies include such techniques as transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), massage therapy, neurosurgery, physical therapy and exercise, and mind-body therapies such as guided imagery, meditation, relaxation, and hypnosis. These therapies attempt to alleviate chronic pain in various ways by stimulating blood circulation, blocking nerve-pain messengers, and enlisting the help of the brain, where pain messages are processed.

A combination of biomedical and nonbiomedical therapies also uses a number of alternative therapies for pain. Acupuncture and acupressure, the foundation of Chinese medicine, are thought to stimulate blood circulation and possibly the autonomic nervous system through insertion of very fine needles at crucial points in the body. Herbal medicine uses substances that are derived from plants with therapeutic or pharmacologic properties and benefits. Many modern medicines have ingredients that originated in plants and can be synthesized in the laboratory. Guided imagery, aromatherapy, creative arts therapy, magnet therapy, and therapeutic touch are often used as adjuncts to dealing with pain, but most have not been proved to be effective. Like analgesics, these therapies address the control and management of pain rather than offering a cure.

Although many of these complementary therapies are not biomedically sanctioned or recognized, many sufferers of chronic pain try some form of complementary medicine. Little or no research has been done on many of these therapies, but their popularity relates to the fact that chronic pain is closely connected with the brain, affecting emotions, attitudes, and psychological stability, which are not addressed by conventional medicine and treatment. Some of these therapies may work through the placebo effect, the phenomenon in which a patient's expectation that a treatment or therapy will be effective produces a successful result. Some approaches are backed by positive evidence, while others have been shown to have no effect. Very little evidence exists about how or why many of these therapies are successful, but combination therapies are vital in alleviating pain, however they may work.

Perspective and Prospects

The development of pain medicine and pain clinics devoted solely to the study and alleviation of pain is a fairly recent occurrence. Since pain was traditionally seen as a symptom rather than as a disease or condition in itself, the medical profession has historically focused on treating the cause, considering pain to be purely a diagnostic tool. The discovery and development of anesthetics for surgical procedures in the latter nineteenth century was a huge advance in medical care and treatment and was a precondition for the later development of pain medicine. In addition to traumatic and postoperative pain, anesthesiologists worked to refine techniques and develop expertise in management relating to other types of pain as well.

Anesthesiology progressed rapidly during World War II, with improved use of nerve blocking and analgesics. Anesthesiologist John Bonica contributed significantly to the development of pain medicine. He was faced with extreme, intractable, complex, and phantom-limb pain (the sensation of pain felt in a limb no longer there) in the injured during wartime and lacked the knowledge or methods to treat them. When pain persisted and physiological causes could not be identified, it became necessary to look elsewhere for the source of the pain. It became obvious that numerous specialists, including psychologists and psychiatrists, needed to consult and discuss their varied findings and opinions.

Practitioners of pain medicine mostly come from other medical fields most closely related to pain, such as neurology, anesthesiology, and rehabilitation. As defined by the American Academy of Pain Medicine, the specialty is concerned with the study, prevention, evaluation, treatment, and rehabilitation of people in pain. Many are certified as pain specialists through the American Board of Anesthesiology. While some pain clinics focus on specific types of pain, such as bone and joint, others address a broader spectrum of suffering and tend to use a variety of methods and treatments, including alternative therapies, to find something that works. Some pain cannot be eliminated but can be minimized or controlled enough to allow the patient to function.

The need to study and understand the causes and alleviation of pain has become more urgent. According to the National Center for Health Statistics, in 2012, 13.9 percent of adults reported that in the past three months, they had experienced neck pain lasting a full day or more; 14.2 percent, a severe headache or migraine lasting a full day or more; and 27.5 percent, lower-back pain lasting a full day or more. The same report found that between 1999 and 2010, consumption of opioid analgesics had increased approximately 300 percent. Pain is usually seen as a result of another physical condition, but considering the costs that accompany pain and resulting disability in terms of dollars and loss of individual function reflected in absenteeism in the workplace, pain places an increasing burden on the American health-care system. The general cost of pain and pain-related items is estimated to top $100 billion each year.

Research is being conducted into the origins and mechanics of pain in an attempt to identify new and more effective therapies. A study funded by the National Institutes of Health found that the perception of pain (the extent to which one feels pain) is inherited through a gene with a specific variant. This gene variant affects sensitivity to acute pain as well as the risk of developing chronic pain. Other genes may also play a role. This study opens up pathways for developing new treatments and approaches to pain.

Professional organizations such as the American Academy of Pain Medicine, the American Pain Foundation, the American Pain Society, and the International Association for the Study of Pain represent only a few of the growing number of resources available for the study of pain and pain management. Alternative approaches are represented by organizations for specific therapies and the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine.

Bibliography

Baszanger, Isabelle. Inventing Pain Medicine: From the Laboratory to the Clinic. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1998. Print.

Bellenir, Karen, ed. Pain Sourcebook: Basic Consumer Health Information About Specific Forms of Acute and Chronic Pain. 2nd ed. Detroit: Omnigraphics, 2002. Print.

Coakley, Sarah, and Kay Kaufman Shelemay, eds. Pain and Its Transformations: The Interface of Biology and Culture. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2008. Print.

Fishman, Scott M. Bonica's Management of Pain. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 2012. Print.

National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2013: With Special Feature on Prescription Drugs. Hyattsville: Author, 2014. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web. 16 Feb. 2015.

Vertosick, Frank T., Jr. Why We Hurt: The Natural History of Pain. New York: Harcourt, 2000. Print.

Waldman, Steven D. Atlas of Uncommon Pain Syndromes. Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2014. Print.

Wall, Patrick David. Pain: The Science of Suffering. New York: Columbia UP, 2013. Print.