Why do people feel stress when learning new information?

Learning causes stress in some individuals for a variety of reasons. First, there are the social implications of trying to learn new information. Socially, people may feel that they will be judged or criticized for their inability to learn and/or retain new information. In this case, stress and anxiety can be due to fear of having to demonstrate one's learning and retention of information. 

Another reason people experience stress when trying to learn new information is the result of cognitive (in the brain) function. Learning any new information occurs in the brain. The brain's neurological system takes in information and various parts of the brain process the information which helps the learner understand the information. Depending on the information being learned it may require decision-making processing, may include motor skill processing (how to hit a ball with a base/softball bat), or learning may even include some level of emotional processing (think fight or flight). So, in some instances an individual's stress level may be elevated when their brain has difficulty processing (learning) new information or making connections between pieces of information.

A third reason people have stress when learning new information is when high risks are involved. Let's say you need to make a decision during your first time in battle; this is a high risk decision which can increase stress in trying to make the right decision. However, if you are playing a military video game, there is no risk or danger (low stress) and so people are more comfortable learning from making mistakes.

So, there are three reasons people experience stress with learning: 1) social implications, 2) difficulty in the brain's processing information, and 3) if there are high risks associated with learning.   

How were people influenced by their beliefs and values in the Italian Renaissance?

A number of things came together to create the period of time called the Italian renaisance.There was a hierarchical social structure coupled with grandiosity, a preoccupation with death and a newfound sense of liberation. In the fourteenth century plague swept Europe: there was the pneumonic plague and the Black plague. "No one wept for the dead because everyone expected death himself." It was not only a generalized prosperity that furnished the renaissance. The period of the Italian renaissance was the only period up to that time when Italians ruled themselves: the papacy was removed from Rome to Avignon in the early fourteenth century as were the various denominational and non-demonitional powers. So there was a greater sense of freedom and independence in Italy at the time of the renaissance.

This coupled with the hierarchical social structure of Italy at the time with its richhi (richest men), grandi (first citizens) and mezzani (commoners) fostered the period of learning and expansion called the renaissance. The grandi were highly educated noblemen(patricians) and they funded and patronized people who sought to express themselves through art, architecture, sculpture, writing and painting. The sense of independence and freedom from the various ecumenical powers coupled with a release from the desperation of death from the plague and such led to a revival of spirit that found its expression in many forms.

What has Estella said to Pip that has upset him so much in Great Expectations?

Pip is upset by Estella's insults to him when he first visits Satis House.

After Uncle Pumblechook comes to the Forge and tells Mrs. Joe that Miss Havisham wants a boy to play with her ward, Estella, Pip is scrubbed, rubbed and shaken, then sent along with Pumblechook. After Pip is left at Satis House, he follows Estella, the ward, up a dark passage to a section of the house where dwells a strange woman who demands that he call Estella. When the girl comes and Miss Havisham says, "Let me see you play cards with this boy," Estella replies, "With this boy? Why, he is a common laboring boy!" Later, she ridicules Pip for calling the "knaves" jacks in the card game, and she says, "And what coarse hands he has! And what thick boots!" Thus, she succeeds in making Pip feel inferior and "common."

After Estella leaves him at the gate, Pip hides behind a gate and cries. On his four-mile walk to the forge, mulling over what he has heard from Estella, Pip ponders her insults and her damage to his psyche:

...that my hands were coarse; that my boots were thick; that I was much more ignorant than I had considered myself last night....

Why did Joyce choose a naïve narrator for "Araby"?

James Joyce's short story, "Araby," is a tale of moving from the innocence of youth to a more nuanced, more experienced understanding of reality. The naiveté of the narrator in the story allows us to see, through him, the simple way in which he views not only his infatuation, but the world as well, and how that simple view erodes away during his trip to the bazaar.

It is obvious from the beginning of the story that the narrator is not accustomed to the feelings that he is having for the subject of his infatuation, whom we only know as “Mangan’s sister.” He is uncertain how to proceed to talk with her, and he describes himself as emotional without knowing why. In this, we see that he is naïve both about his feelings and how to deal with them.

Due to his naiveté, the narrator associates in his mind that success in having further conversations with Mangan’s sister is predicated on success in buying her a gift at the bazaar. When nothing works out for him the day of the bazaar, and he finds himself there after many of the stalls are closes and with less money than he anticipated, he understands the futility of his endeavor, and he gains experience. This experience is further bolstered by the easy banter of the woman at the stall and the two men talking with her. Their interactions show him how faltering and naïve his attempts at talking to the subject of his infatuation really were, and he leaves with a new, more experienced understanding of the world.

What is e. coli infection?

Causes and Symptoms

Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a rod-shaped, gram-negative bacterium and a member of the Enterobacteriaceae family. Its cytoplasm is enclosed by an inner membrane, a periplasmic space, a peptidoglycan layer, an outer membrane, and, finally, a capsule. Most strains produce two types of projections, flagellae for motility and fimbriae (pili) for cellular adhesion and genetic transfer. There is no nucleus. The genome consists of a single circular chromosome that is usually complemented by multiple plasmids. There are no intracellular organelles, and respiratory processes occur at the cellular membrane.

E. coli are found as normal flora in the gastrointestinal tracts of mammals and are the most common facultative anaerobes in the human intestinal tract. The traits that transform these benign inhabitants into disease-causing pathogens are called virulence factors. The virulence factors of E. coli may be divided into adhesins, toxins, and capsules. Adhesins consist of fimbriae or outer membrane proteins that allow the bacteria to bind to host cells and exert their disease-causing effects. Toxins are proteins made by E. coli that can be released to damage, or even kill, host cells. Capsules can enable the bacteria to elude the immune system and invade host tissues.

Plasmids can be transmitted between various strains of E. coli and other bacteria by a process called conjugation. In order for a bacterium to conjugate, it must possess F (fertility) factor, which is a specific type of plasmid that contains genes for plasmid DNA replication and pili construction. A bacterium with F factor can use its F factor–generated pili to hold onto another bacterium and inject selected portions of genetic material into the bacterial partner. This genetic material can add new virulence factors or antibiotic resistance attributes to the recipient bacterium.

The diseases caused by E. coli may be divided into intestinal and extraintestinal. The E. coli strains causing intestinal diseases are of several different types. Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) cause disease by adhering to intestinal epithelial cells with an outer membrane adhesin (intimin) and special pili, both of which are plasmid-mediated. The exact mechanism by which these virulence factors alter the intestine—resulting in watery diarrhea, low-grade fever, and vomiting—is unclear. Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) cause illness using a combination of mucosal adherence and toxin production. The enterotoxin is similar to cholera toxin and alters ionic transfer in the intestinal cells, producing copious amounts of watery diarrhea. The illness can vary greatly, from a lack of symptoms to severe diarrhea with cramps, nausea, and dehydration. The adhesins and toxins appear to be mediated by both chromosomal and plasmid genes. Some E. coli have acquired genes from Shigella dysenteriae via conjugation, and these strains can produce Shiga toxins (STEC). The toxins permit intestinal invasion, resulting in painful, bloody diarrhea indistinguishable from shigellosis; such strains are referred to as enterohemorrhagic (EHEC). In about 5 percent of cases, Shiga toxins enter the bloodstream, causing damage to red blood cells, endothelial cells, and kidney cells; this is called the hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS). The life-threatening HUS is usually associated with the O157:H7 strain of E. coli and is seen more often in children than in adults. The O157:H7 strain often colonizes cattle, and humans may then acquire the infection from eating beef or fresh vegetables contaminated by cattle manure.

The extraintestinal diseases caused by E. coli vary widely. E. coli is the most common cause of urinary tract infections (UTIs). The strains that cause UTIs are different from those strains that colonize healthy individuals. These uropathogenic E. coli possess fimbriae the bind to cells lining the urinary tract. They are also encapsulated and produce a toxin (hemolysin). The E. coli may ascend the urinary tract through the urethra to the bladder and kidney. The route is more common in women because of a shorter urethra and can be facilitated in both men and women by the use of a urinary catheter. Infection of the kidney can also occur via the bloodstream. E. coli infection can follow surgery, especially when the intestinal tract is violated. Surgical wound infection, abscesses, and peritonitis are possible. Because ducts connect the gallbladder and pancreas directly with the intestinal lumen (cavity), E. coli often play a prominent role in cholecystitis and pancreatitis. Newborns with undeveloped immune systems may experience ear infections, bacteremia, or meningitis caused by E. coli. The strains producing neonatal meningitis have a K1 capsule, which may facilitate passage into the brain. Because E. coli are so common and possess many virulence factors, they can produce many additional types of infection.

Treatment and Therapy

Mild cases of diarrhea caused by EPEC strains usually can be managed with fluids and other supportive therapies, but the duration of illness may be made shorter with the use of antibiotic therapy. ETEC diarrhea is treated with loperamide and oral antibiotics. STEC and HUS are treated with supportive care. HUS may require renal dialysis.

Extraintestinal infection is treated by antibiotic therapy. Since E.
coli are becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotics, susceptibility testing on the particular strain of E. coli causing the infection, isolated from diagnostic cultures, must be performed.

Perspective and Prospects

Escherichia coli is named after Theodore Escherich, who described the bacterium in a paper published in 1885. Frederich Blattner of the University of Wisconsin completed the sequencing of the 4,288 genes of the E. coli genome in 1997. Nearly half of these genes were newly identified.

Epidemiological studies have assisted in the understanding of the origins of E. coli infections. Intestinal illness can be prevented with improved farming methods, better food processing and handling, expanded sewage and sanitation facilities, purification of drinking water, and hand washing. The prevalence of hospital-acquired infections, such as UTIs, can be reduced by limiting the use of urinary catheters and the employment of closed drainage systems when catheters are necessary.

The treatment of extraintestinal E. coli infection, and some intestinal infections, depends upon the use of one or more effective antibiotics. Resistance is a rapidly growing problem and can be controlled only through reduction of the inappropriate use of antibiotics and the development of new agents.

Bibliography

A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia. "E. coli Enteritis." MedlinePlus, January 10, 2011.

Alcamo, I. Edward. Fundamentals of Microbiology. 6th ed. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett, 2001.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "E. coli." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, August 3, 2012.

Forbes, Betty A., Daniel F. Sahm, and Alice S. Weissfeld. Bailey & Scott’s
Diagnostic Microbiology. 12th ed. Saint Louis: Mosby Elsevier, 2007.

Koneman, Elmer W. The Other End of the Microscope: The Bacteria Tell Their Own Story. Washington, D.C.: ASM Press, 2002.

Mandell, Gerald L., John E. Bennett, and Raphael Dolin, eds. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 7th ed. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, 2010.

McCoy, Krisha. "Escherichia coli Infection." HealthLibrary, March 20, 2013.

What is the central conflict in Bharati Mukherjee's short story "The Management of Grief"?

In literature, there are usually five basic forms of conflict: man versus man; man versus nature; man versus society; man versus self; and man versus technology.

The central conflict in The Management of Grief would be man versus society; the protagonist, Shaila Bhave, finds herself pitted against two opposing societal ideals in grief management, Hindu and secular western. The resolution of the conflict is surprising, but uplifting.

First, we will discuss Shaila's Indian culture. India boasts many different ethnic groups, each with distinct customs regarding death and mourning. Among these ethnic groups, further religious and caste considerations bear critical influence in the area of grief management. Shaila, for example, is Hindu, and conceivably descends from Brahmin ancestry. We are told that Shaila's grandmother was a 'spoiled daughter of a rich zamindar...' Zamindars or Bhumihar Brahmins were wealthy, land-owning aristocrats. In her grandmother's time, widowed Brahmin women were considered unlucky. They were expected to shave their heads as an act of shame after their husband's demise. Essentially, it was an act of penance for bringing such ill luck to her household.

In the story, Shaila's grandmother was purported to have 'shaved her head with rusty razor blades when she was widowed at sixteen.' Today, many widows (even those from the higher castes), are expected to restrict their diets to plain foods, eschewing sexually stimulating foods such as garlic, onions, pickles, and fish. Many widows, especially those from the Brahmin castes, are expected to devote the rest of their lives to worship and prayer, most notably at ashrams. Shaila confesses that no one thinks 'of arranging a husband for an unlucky widow.'

Shaila herself visits one such ashram 'in a tiny Himalayan village' and makes 'offerings of flowers and sweetmeats to the god of a tribe of animists.' While she worships, her husband descends to her as a supernatural incarnation of himself. He speaks to her as her former teacher: "You must finish alone what we started together." When a 'sweaty hand gropes' for her blouse, she does not scream. Interestingly, Hindu mythology is filled with stories of otherworldly sexual activity between deceased husbands and their widowed wives.

In life, a Hindu woman is defined as an extension of her husband and sons. This outward manifestation of value is conferred upon a woman based on an ancient, patriarchal construct that has been revered for centuries. In life as in death, a woman graciously abides by her husband's edicts; should he die, her svadharma (personal duty) is defined by her husband in any incarnation he may choose ('How to tell Judith Templeton that my family surrounds me, and that like creatures in epics, they've changed shapes?'). Essentially, the husband-wife relationship is that of a master-pupil (guru-shishya) relationship.

In the story, we are told that 'substantial, educated, successful men of forty' are expected to marry and to 'look after a wife,' while the widows are expected to remain chaste. While a man derives relevance from his status as a provider, a woman's value is defined by her relation to her husband. Differing expectations aren't unusual for Hindu women such as Shaila.

Now, from the western, secular standpoint, Judith Templeton's grief philosophy represents the quintessentially clinical outlook favored by many experts. To Judith, 'there are stages to pass through: rejection, depression, acceptance, reconstruction.' Remarriage is part of reconstruction, but even Judith is a little surprised at 'how quickly some of the men have taken on new families.' Because she has such little experience and knowledge of traditional Indian ways of grieving, Judith enlists Shaila's help in reaching out to other families. She thinks that Shaila's outward calm demonstrates her strength; she doesn't realize that, even within her own community, Shaila's unusually restrained outward demeanor differentiates her from her peers. Shaila is descended from a Zamindar and manifests only what she is expected to: dignified calmness in the midst of tragedy. However much her true self desires cathartic, emotional release, she refuses to give way to hysterics.

So, how is the 'protagonist versus society' conflict resolved? Does Shaila resort to the life of penance expected of a Brahmin widow, or does she choose the western, clinical approach? At the end of the story, we are told that Shaila hears the voices of her husband and sons one last time; their voices tell her to 'go, be brave' and that her time has come. So, essentially, Shaila chooses to adhere to her Hindu beliefs, but with a caveat. Instead of relying on incarnations of her husband and sons to guide her future, she decides to choose her own guru-shishya relationship and to pursue her svadharma (personal duty) on her terms. Whatever the future holds, she will decide how she receives wisdom and how she fulfills her purpose on earth.

What are some examples of how different leadership and/or motivational approaches should be considered for different countries?

As a leader, it is essential to understand the cultural differences that exist between different countries and their working styles. In order to better understand how to lead and motivate people from different countries, I would strongly recommend you take a look at Hofstede's cultural dimensions.

In this framework, Hofstede describes the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior.

For example, let's compare the appropriate leadership style required for people in the US and Japan. (I have attached the link to the comparison below.)

If we look at the dimension Individualism, we can see that the US nearly doubles the score of Japan (91 and 42, respectively). This implies that people in the US love the idea of being unique, whereas in Japan people may prefer working with a team and unity. Similarly, we can see that Japan doubles the score of the US in Uncertainty Avoidance, which implies that Japanese businesspeople may be very conservative in regards to risk-taking decisions.

Therefore, if we look at these results from the perspective of a leader, one would be able to lead and motivate individuals in the US by rewarding individual creativity. In contrast, one would need to understand the importance of unity and teamwork when leading people in Japan. In fact, there is a Japanese saying that perfectly embodies the importance of conformity in their culture: "The nail that sticks out will be hammered".

Take a position on the following statement: "The imposition of liberal ideas on the Aboriginal society of Canada was inevitable and ultimately...

First, it's important to be aware that the Indigenous peoples of Canada (often referred to as First Nations) are not a single society, but a diverse collection of tribes whose cultures can be very different from one another. Nevertheless, like the Indigenous peoples in other parts of North America, First Nations communities have for centuries had Western perspectives and ideologies imposed upon them, often with unfortunate results.

In taking a position on this statement, I would start by deconstructing the sentence and focusing on two key words: "inevitable" and "beneficial." While it is true that the culture clash between Western settlers and First Nations peoples was inevitable, the imposition of liberal ideas was a conscious act on the part of colonizers. In fact, the word "inevitable" implies certainty; however, the only reason that liberal ideals were forced onto First Nations peoples was because a particular group made it happen. In that case, it was less an inevitability and more of an objective successfully achieved.

As for this imposition being "ultimately beneficial," that is a matter of perspective. The imposition of a Western ideology on Native peoples was often a violent, oppressive, and dislocating process that included, among other things, resettlement and the use of boarding schools in order to eradicate Native cultures. Moreover, at no time were First Nations peoples given any choice in the matter, which seriously undermined their autonomy.

Given the historical trauma caused by colonization and the continued oppression and marginalization of Native peoples in Canada and around the world, it's hard to argue that the Westernization (imposing liberal ideas) was ever beneficial to First Nations communities.

What is venous insufficiency?

Causes and Symptoms

Venous insufficiency can be either reversible (acute) or irreversible (chronic). It is caused by conditions that increase the amount of circulating blood combined with a decrease in venous flow and is most commonly manifested by thrombophlebitis,

varicose veins, and leg
ulcers. Thrombophlebitis and varicose veins may be reversible in acute insufficiency.

Thrombophlebitis is an inflammation of the vein, commonly occurring in the legs. It may impede blood flow, resulting in pain, tenderness, redness, warmth along the vein, and
edema (swelling). Thrombi (clots) may also form, enlarge, break off, and produce an embolus (dislodged clot), obstructing circulation and causing death. Varicose veins are large, protruding, and painful veins unable to return blood adequately to the trunk as a result of inefficient valves. They may be caused by pregnancy, congenital valve or vessel defects, obesity, pressure from prolonged standing, and poor posture. Leg ulcers are open, draining, painful wounds resulting from an inadequate supply of oxygen and other nutrients. They may
also develop on skin surrounding varicose veins because of the stasis (slowing or halting) of the blood flow.

Treatment and Therapy

The treatment for thrombophlebitis includes rest; leg elevation; warm, moist heat to decrease pain and discomfort; and anticoagulant (blood-thinning) therapy to assist with circulation and to impede clot formation. Elastic stockings or bandages assist the return of blood to the heart. Drugs may be used to dissolve clots and to dilate vessels, improving circulation.

The conservative treatment of varicose veins includes the use of elastic stockings or bandages and rest. Aggressive treatment may include injecting the vein with sclerosing agents to occlude it and stop blood flow, thereby collapsing it. Surgical treatment may include ligating (tying off) the vein and then stripping and removing it.

Leg ulcer treatment includes debridement (the chemical or surgical removal of dirt or dead cellular tissue), cleansing and dressing the wound with ointments, pressure bandages, and the application of medicated castlike (unna) boots. Skin grafting may be attempted if other measures are not effective.

Bibliography

Bergan, John J., and Jeffrey L. Ballard, eds. Chronic Venous Insufficiency: Diagnosis and Treatment. New York: Springer, 2000.

Carson-DeWitt, Rosalyn, and Michael J. Fucci. "Varicose Veins." Health Library, Mar. 13, 2013.

"Chronic Venous Insufficiency." Vascular Disease Foundation, Mar. 15, 2012.

Cohen, Barbara J., et al. Memmler’s The Human Body in Health and Disease. 12th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2013.

Dugdale, David C. III, and David Zieve. "Deep Venous Thrombosis." MedlinePlus, Feb. 19, 2012.

Ernst, Calvin B., and James C. Stanley, eds. Current Therapy in Vascular Surgery. 4th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby, 2001.

Grossman, Neil, and David Zieve. "Venous Insufficiency." MedlinePlus, June 27, 2012.

Hershey, Falls B., Robert W. Barnes, and David S. Sumner, eds. Noninvasive Diagnosis of Vascular Disease. Pasadena, Calif.: Appleton Davies, 1984.

Loscalzo, Joseph, and Andrew I. Schafer, eds. Thrombosis and Hemorrhage. 3d ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003.

Mohrman, David E., and Lois Jane Heller. Cardiovascular Physiology. 7th ed. New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill, 2010.

Why did the speaker in Keats' "Ode on a Grecian Urn" seem to have a change in opinion towards the urn? Was there some sort of historical significance?

John Keats' "Ode on a Grecian Urn" is a compelling poem for many reasons. One of the main reasons, however, is the remarkable shift in tone that can be observed taking place between the beginning and the end of the poem. Often, it's possible to see this shift in tone as resulting from Keats gradual acceptance of the urn as a stand-alone piece of art.

In the first section of the poem, the speaker impatiently questions the urn, asking for answers regarding its historical and mythical significance. For instance, he asks, "What men or gods are these? What maidens loth?/ What mad pursuit?" (8-9). In other words, the speaker wants to know more about the identities of the people depicted in the urn's painted scene; he wants to have greater knowledge regarding the "truth" behind this particular work of art.

Being a inanimate object, the urn obviously can't answer the speaker's impatient queries. However, the narrator gradually seems to accept this fact. By the end of the poem, he ceases his questioning, and affirms:"'Beauty is truth, truth beauty,—that is all/ Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know'" (49-50). This quote is historically significant because it's often attributed to Sir Joshua Reynolds, a prominent authority on art in Keats' day. The quote basically states that the beauty of a work of art, including this particular urn, is the only truth that one needs to know. This pronouncement satisfies the formerly impatient speaker. Moreover, the poem's shift in tone is significant because Keats uses it to affirm his opinion that art is the highest form of truth in existence. 

What is methamphetamine?

History of Use

A Japanese scientist first synthesized methamphetamine in 1919. Along with amphetamines, methamphetamine was given to both Axis and Allied soldiers during World War II as performance aids and to counteract sleep deprivation. Illegal use of methamphetamine rose in the United States in the 1960s, originating in the Southwest. Methamphetamine was supplied by labs in Mexico and smuggled into the United States through US border states. By the 1980s, methamphetamine had become increasingly popular in the Midwest and in the southern states, partially because of the availability of fertilizer that could be used as an ingredient in methamphetamine production.

Although the National Institute on Drug Abuse reports that methamphetamine use among teenagers is in decline, studies show that there are between 15 and 16 million methamphetamine abusers worldwide, a number some experts say is second only to marijuana use. Admission rates to rehabilitation centers for methamphetamine addiction are higher in some states than for cocaine or even alcohol abuse.

One of the methods of coping with the rising methamphetamine problem has been a slow but progressive change in treating addicts. Prison officials, psychologists, and legislators have made changes in the prison system so that prisoners addicted to methamphetamine can safely go through detoxification and receive further treatment.

Treatment for methamphetamine addiction has become specialized. The matrix model includes cognitive-behavioral therapy, family education, positive reinforcement for behavior change and treatment compliance, and a twelve-step program. No ideal medication has been found for treatment, although some studies have examined the use of the tricyclic antidepressant imiprazine (Tofranil).

Effects and Potential Risks

The physical effects of a methamphetamine high resemble those of the body in a fight-or-flight, hyperarousal response. Heart rate and blood pressure increases, and awareness is heightened with increased self-confidence.

Chronic methamphetamine use and methamphetamine overdose lead to extremely dangerous physical conditions, including myocardial infarction, cardiopulmonary arrest, seizures, hypoxic brain damage, hyperthermia, and intracranial bleeds. Psychiatric symptoms are extremely common and include insomnia, mood disorders, violent behavior, paranoia, and hallucinations.

Methamphetamine increases the release of and blocks the body’s reuptake of dopamine, which increases the levels of dopamine in the brain. The inability of the brain to release the excess dopamine creates the user’s rush or high. Chronic methamphetamine use leads to a change in the activity of the dopamine system, specifically a decrease in motor skills and impaired verbal learning skills. Chronic use also affects emotions, memory, and general cognitive abilities. Because methamphetamine is highly lipophilic, it enables a rapid and extensive transport across the blood-brain barrier. It is highly neurotoxic and can stay in the body’s system for eight to thirteen hours.

Even after a methamphetamine user stops using the drug, the damage to his or her brain continues. There is evidence of impairment of the anterior cingulated cortex, the area of the brain that influences cognitive functions and emotions and regulates behavior. The drug disables the ability to choose between healthy and unhealthy behaviors. Enhanced cortical gray matter volume also declines with age, leading to an accelerated rate of mental functioning, primarily because of a reduction in the number of neurons rather than shrinkage of gray matter. Methamphetamine users are at a greater risk for degenerative or cognitive diseases, and persons who are comorbid with depression are at a higher risk for dementia.

Methamphetamine use also increases the risk of transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the hepatitis virus. Shared-needle use and higher risk sexual behavior increase the chances that a user will be infected with a sexually transmitted disease. Methamphetamine users who are HIV positive tend to suffer more neuronal injury and cognitive impairment.

A common physical trait of a chronic methamphetamine user is poor oral hygiene, or meth mouth. Methamphetamine use can cause a decrease in saliva output, leading to chronic dry mouth. Users will often drink large amounts of sugary carbonated soft drinks, which leads to severe dental decay. Many methamphetamine users also may grind or clench their teeth, causing tooth fractures.

Bibliography

Nakama, Helena, et al. “Methamphetamine Users Show Greater Than Normal Age-Related Cortical Gray Matter Loss.” Addiction 106.8 (2011): 1474–83. Print. A cross-sectional study that suggests that methamphetamine users suffer a decline in cognitive health at earlier ages than those who do not use methamphetamine.

Padilla, Ricardo, and Andre V. Ritter. “Meth Mouth: Methamphetamine and Oral Health.” Journal of Esthetic and Restorative Dentistry 20.2 (2008): 148–49. Print. Examines the occurrence of meth mouth.

Schep, Leo, Robin J. Slaughter, and D. Michael G. Beasley. “The Clinical Toxicology of Methamfetamine.” Clinical Toxicology 48 (2010): 675–84. Print. An overview of the biochemical mechanisms of methamphetamine on the brain and an extensive list of toxicokinetics and clinical features of methamphetamine abuse.

Websites of Interest

Drug Information Portal. National Library of Medicine

http://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal

National Institute on Drug Abuse

http://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/methamphetamine

What is the difference between a Pullman porter and a redcap?

Pullman porters and redcaps both work for the owners of a train. Both of these positions are customer service positions and have nothing to do with operating or driving the train.

According to Bud, Not Buddy, as Mrs. Sleet explains it in chapter 11, a redcap loads cargo and helps passengers get their belongings, such as baggage, onto a train. A Pullman porter assists the passengers once they are on the train.

Pullman porters worked for the largest train company in the country during the early 1900s, the Pullman Company. The main job of the Pullman porter was to take care of passenger needs during the long train rides common during the early 1900s. Passengers traveled long distances on overnight journeys. The Pullman porter made up the berths each day, changing the berths from seating to beds and back again the next morning. Pullman porters also assisted passengers with other needs such as acquiring food and personal items throughout the long journey.

In "The Canterville Ghost" by Oscar Wilde, why does Sir Simon create the blood-stain and why is Virginia upset?

After Washington Otis removes the blood-stain in the library with Pinkerton's, Sir Simon is forced to find a way of recreating it. As real blood is a "very difficult thing" to get hold of, Sir Simon steals some of Virginia's paints to recreate the stain. This explains why Virginia is so upset with him and, in Chapter Five, she vents her anger:

"It is you who are rude, and horrid, and vulgar, and as for dishonesty, you know you stole the paints out of my box."

Each time that a member of the family removes the stain, Sir Simon goes to the library and paints it again. This action adds a humorous element to this scene, as it is revealed that Sir Simon quickly ran out of red paint and was forced to use green and yellow. Virginia's comment reinforces this sense of humor:

"For whoever heard of emerald-green blood?"

Despite feeling upset with Sir Simon for the theft of her paints, Virginia soon forgives him as she realizes the extent of his suffering.

What is the relationship between psychosis and substance abuse?

Substance Abuse and Psychosis

Clinical studies and community surveys document high rates of substance use disorders (SUD) in persons with psychotic symptoms. The lifetime prevalence of substance abuse among persons with psychotic illnesses such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder is much higher than in the general population.

This comorbidity is most often associated with being male, single, young, and having a conduct or antisocial personality disorder. Persons with psychosis also tend to abuse multiple substances. The overlapping biological substrates responsible for this co-occurrence include structural brain abnormalities, genetic vulnerabilities, and early exposure to stress or trauma.

A high prevalence of substance abuse in persons with schizophrenia has been reported in numerous studies conducted in developed countries. According to the US National Institute of Mental Health, schizophrenia carries a 10.1 percent risk of drug abuse, and SUD may constitute the most common comorbidity of schizophrenia. Apart from tobacco and cannabis (the preferred substances), these persons also abuse alcohol, cocaine, and amphetamines.

When a person presents to mental health professionals with recent-onset psychosis associated with substance abuse, it becomes essential to establish whether the substance use caused the symptoms. Psychosis is considered to be independent of the SUD if the psychosis occurred before the substance use or if the psychosis persisted during long substance-free periods. An absence of disorientation (which occurs in substance-induced delirium) also may point to a distinct psychosis.

In practice, the aforementioned features can be difficult to ascertain. Persons with psychosis often do not remember the exact sequence of events that contributed to the development of their disorder. Therefore, it becomes difficult to pinpoint the temporal relationship of psychotic symptoms and substance abuse. In addition, the patients may not experience significant substance-free periods. The diagnosis dilemma is further amplified by the similarity of symptoms, such as paranoia and auditory hallucinations, occurring both in independent psychosis and in psychosis induced by substances (especially stimulants). For this reason, persons with comorbid psychosis and SUD need to be thoroughly assessed at presentation, detoxified, treated immediately by interdisciplinary teams (using pharmacotherapy and cognitive behavioral-therapy among other approaches), and then monitored.

Overall, coexisting SUD imparts a more severe character and a poorer outcome to psychotic disorders, with frequent relapses and hospitalizations. Studies show, for example, that persons with defined comorbid SUD and first-episode psychosis are likely to have poorer treatment response than those with psychosis alone.

Psychosis Triggers

Alcohol and illegal drugs (cannabis, amphetamines, cocaine, hallucinogens, and opiates) can cause psychosis, both during use and as a consequence of withdrawal. Severe psychiatric disorders appear to correlate with earlier and longer exposure to stimulants. This suggests the presence of a critical developmental stage, or a threshold effect, of the drug on psychosis development.

Up to 15 percent of cannabis users report psychotic symptoms immediately after use. The hypothesis that cannabis abuse also causes chronic schizophrenia-like psychosis has not been ruled out, although evidence remains insufficient. An increasing body of literature points to early exposure to cannabis as generating psychosis later in life. Cannabis use during adolescence is an independent risk factor for the onset of psychosis in adulthood (especially in at-risk subjects) and associates with an earlier onset of schizophrenia. Studies also suggest that heavy cannabis use precipitates psychotic relapses in persons with schizophrenia who previously achieved remission.

Psychotic symptoms with paranoia and suspiciousness are reported during cocaine use and withdrawal. The propensity to experience cocaine-induced psychosis has been linked to mutations in genes coding for proteins involved in dopaminergic transmission.

Methamphetamine use is commonly associated with psychiatric conditions such as psychosis and depression. During both abstinent and intoxicated circumstances, persons who are methamphetamine-dependent are more likely to report psychotic symptoms than are cocaine addicts. Drug-induced psychotic syndromes are both positive (auditory hallucinations, persecutory delusions) and negative (poor speech, flattened affect). These psychotic states persist after the pharmacological effects of the methamphetamine have subsided, and they reappear upon reinjection. Furthermore, under stressful conditions, persons with a history of methamphetamine psychosis undergo spontaneous recurrence of their psychotic symptoms. Methamphetamine psychosis might therefore associate with persistent structural or functional brain damage caused by repeated drug administration.

Psychosis Can Lead to Substance Abuse

It has been suggested that persons with schizophrenia may self-medicate with tobacco, alcohol, and drugs. The substances of abuse are often perceived as alleviating negative symptoms (such as depression and withdrawal), improving hallucinations and paranoid delusions, lessening adverse effects of medications (such as restlessness), and providing an avenue for social interaction. This causal relationship remains unclear, as some studies have contradicted the self-medication hypothesis for this comorbidity.

Bibliography

Emmelkamp, Paul M. G., and Ellen Vedel. Evidence-Based Treatment for Alcohol and Drug Abuse: A Practitioner’s Guide to Theory, Methods, and Practice. New York: Routledge, 2006. Print.

Tamminga, Carol A., et al., eds. Deconstructing Psychosis: Refining the Research Agenda for DSM-V. Arlington: Amer. Psychiatric Assn., 2010. Print.

Thakkar, Vatsal G. Addiction. New York: Chelsea, 2006. Print.

Volkow, Nora D. “Substance Use Disorders in Schizophrenia: Clinical Implications of Comorbidity.” Schizophrenia Bulletin 35 (2009): 469–72. Print.

How does Teflon provide reduced friction?

Teflon is most commonly known for its non-stick coatings in frying pans and other cookwares. It is an essential part of most of the kitchens. If you want to cook something (especially without gravy) and you are working with a non-stick pan, there are chances that some of the food will stick to it and will be tough to remove. In comparison, Teflon coated cookware (such as a frying pan) will be very easy to work with. This is because of a very low coefficient of friction.

In fact, Teflon has the third lowest coefficient of friction (= 0.05-0.1) among the known solid materials. It is a hydrophobic and lipophobic material, which means, neither water nor oil sticks to it, thus making cooking easier. There are a number of factors which provide low coefficient of friction to Teflon. It exhibits high cohesive forces, but extremely low adhesive forces, which makes it difficult for anything to attach to the Teflon surface. 

Teflon has the chemical name of polytetrafluoroethylene (or PTFE). It is a polymer composed of carbon and fluorine atoms. Fluorine is very electronegative and does not part with its electrons. It does not form hydrogen bonds either. This causes extremely low Van der Waals forces and hence other substances find it difficult to stick to it.

And that is how Teflon (or PTFE) provides surface of low friction.

Hope this helps. 

State and explain where the "The Chimney-Sweeper" is set?

Blake's "The Chimney Sweeper" is set in London, England in the late 1700s. It describes, from the point of view of a young, innocent chimney sweeper, the cruel life of young boys from the poorest sections of society who were forced to clean chimneys. Young and very slim boys were needed for this work, because only they could fit down the narrow chimneys.

The poem describes the harsh life of these boys who lived in a time before labor laws protected young children from being exploited. As the chimney sweeper recounts, the chimney sweepers have their heads shaved and must rise before the sun is up in the cold to gather up their brushes and bags to head off for work. The chimney sweeper dreams of the childhood an ordinary boy might have, "leaping" and "laughing" as he and his friends run into a river to wash. But such a simple event is simply a dream for this poor child and his fellow workers. 

What is the form of Margaret Mitchell's novel Gone with the Wind?

Margaret Mitchell's 1936 novel Gone with the Wind conforms to multiple genres. It is a romance novel, with the protagonist, Scarlett O'Hara, manipulating men for her personal benefit while genuinely falling in love with Rhett Butler. It is a historical novel, meticulously depicting the devastation of the American Civil War and the humiliations associated with Reconstruction, if also decidedly biased towards the South of the author's heritage. It is, to a degree, a feminist novel, with its protagonist, Scarlett, a strong-willed, fairly independent woman determined to succeed in business during an era well before women would even enjoy the right to vote. It is a Southern novel, reflecting, once again, the author's Southern heritage and disposition, both for better and for worse. And it can be considered a bildungsroman, tracking its protagonist's development over a period of time, in this case the period immediately preceding the start of the Civil War and continuing into the post-war period. Gone with the Wind is all of this, and its commercial success was a testament to Mitchell's ability to capture the environment depicted in the land of her birth that, unfortunately, fought tenaciously to maintain a horrific system of slavery and racial segregation. 

For many Americans living above the Mason-Dixon Line, their most formative exposure to the South's perspective during and after the Civil War was Mitchell's novel and the film that was adapted from the novel. In fact, the 1939 film adaption, also titled Gone with the Wind, and starring Clark Gable in his most famous role as Rhett Butler and Vivien Leigh as Scarlett O'Hara, was perhaps the first major "blockbuster" among large-budget films. The film successfully captures the atmosphere Mitchell sought to depict during the decade she spent writing her novel. As far as "forms" that describe the novel, as noted above, they include historical, Southern, bildungsroman, feminist, and romance.

What was Helen's experience during her visit to the World's Fair?

Helen visited the World's Fair in Chicago, Illinois in the summer of 1893. At the fair, Helen's dear friend Alexander Graham Bell served as a guide to her and Ms. Sullivan. Alexander Graham Bell was already a well-known inventor.  

Despite being deaf and blind, Helen felt a sense of wonder in being at the fair. Helen was full of joy as the "marvels of invention, treasures of industry and skill and all the activities of human life actually passed under [her] finger tips." Scenes from places around the world could be found at the Midway Plaisance, which Helen enjoyed. Scenes from Venice, Cairo, and India were there. There was even a recreation of a Viking ship. There was also a model of the Columbus ship, the Santa Maria.

The President of the World's Fair, a man named Mr. Higinbotham, allowed Helen "to touch the exhibits." This let Helen experience the fair in her own way. Alexander Graham Bell communicated information to Helen about the fair and described what surrounded her. It was in the "electrical building [that they] examined the telephones, autophones, phonographs, and other inventions," which fascinated Helen. He explained to her how those new inventions worked.

Helen was at the fair for three weeks. She loved all the things she was able to discover there.

What information does the Federal scout bring to Farquhar?

The Federal scout tells Peyton Farquhar that the Union army is repairing the railroad to get ready for another advance into the South.  He says that they've gotten as far as Owl Creek Bridge (about thirty miles away from Farquhar's home) and that the commandant has announced that anyone who interferes with the railroads or bridges will be hanged.  This lets Farquhar know how important the railroad lines are to the Union war effort as well as how much damage he could inflict by damaging this particular bridge.  

Further, the scout also tells him that last season's flood pushed a great deal of driftwood up against part of the wooden bridge, and -- if lit -- it would burn the whole bridge down.  So, the scout gives him both the motivation and the means by which he can seriously injure the Union's ability to make inroads in this part of the South, and, as a slave owner and secessionist, Farquhar cannot seem to resist this opportunity.  (He obviously doesn't realize that the man telling him this is a Federal scout and not a Confederate soldier.)

What is crowd psychology?

Introduction

Crowds are groups of people who are together for short periods of time. The study of crowd behavior examines the actions that people in a crowd perform and how these actions differ from the behavior of individuals acting alone. Crowd behavior became a focus of scholarly thought in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in reaction to social turmoil in western Europe. Italian criminologist Scipio Sighele was among the first to write about crowd behavior; French psychologist Gustave Le Bon
, the founder of crowd psychology, formalized and popularized the concept with his book The Crowd, published in 1895. Le Bon’s ideas reached a wide audience and are said to have influenced German dictator Adolf Hitler and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. Because crowds have performed many senseless and destructive acts, both historically and in modern times, understanding crowd behavior remains extremely important for psychologists.

The term “crowd” refers to a wide spectrum of human gatherings, varying in their complexity and the intention with which people join them. Some crowds are casual ones in which people come together by happenstance, such as a group of pedestrians standing on a sidewalk. These tend to be simple, disorganized groups of people who do not know one another and will probably not see each other again. Other crowds are conventionalized; the people have all chosen a common activity, such as watching a parade or a sporting event, and express excitement in standard ways, such as cheering. Some crowds are purposive, choosing to be together for a common goal, such as a rally or political protest. These groups are often highly cohesive and highly organized.

Because crowds differ so much in their composition, organization, and purpose, there is also considerable variation in typical crowd behavior. Popular and scholarly attention has tended to focus on situations in which crowd behavior is considered problematic. In these situations, the crowd often has an unusual problem to solve rapidly—for example, how to respond to a hostile police force. The occurrence of riots and violence attests to the fact that these sorts of problems are not always solved constructively by crowds. It should be noted, however, that crowds are capable of behaving in positive ways as well.

Underlying Psychological Processes

Early theories of crowd behavior hypothesized that unruly crowds were made up of criminals or the mentally deficient. Proponents of this perspective assumed that crowd behavior could be explained by the individual personalities of people in the crowd and that certain kinds of people were more likely to be found in a crowd. Le Bon provided a more psychological analysis of crowd behavior, recognizing that even people of high intelligence could become members of an unruly crowd. He believed that crowds transform people, obliterating their normal abilities to be rational and putting them in a hypnotic, highly suggestible state. Le Bon disapproved of crowd behavior in all forms; consequently, in his book he painted an extremely negative picture of crowd behavior.

Modern social psychological research suggests that neither of these early viewpoints is a good description of the psychological forces underlying crowd behavior. Experimental research has determined that almost any individual could be influenced to behave in uncharacteristic ways under the right circumstances. Le Bon’s perspective has also been greatly refined. Rather than relying on his concepts of mass hypnosis and loss of rationality, modern researchers draw primarily from social identity theory to help explain crowd behavior. Social identity theory, originally developed by European psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, posits that individuals derive an important part of their sense of identity from the groups to which they belong. Groups such as one’s family, school, or religion can all be positive sources of identity.

Under some circumstances, crowds can become a source of identity as well. A key psychological mechanism through which crowds become a source of identity is deindividuation, the loss of a person’s inhibitions and sense of identity when he or she is in the presence of others. Crowds are especially likely to lead to deindividuation for a number of reasons. First, crowds cause individuals to feel less accountable for their actions; they are less likely to be singled out and feel less personally responsible for any act the crowd commits. Crowds also focus attention away from the self, so one’s own values and internal standards become less influential. Thus, in line with social identity theory, deindividuation leads a person to become focused on social identity rather than individual identity. When social identity is important to a person, he or she becomes particularly susceptible to social influence. Group norms, or a group’s standards and expectations regarding appropriate behavior, become especially significant, and the individual is likely to conform strictly to those norms. In the short time frame of many crowd gatherings, the norm becomes whatever everyone else is doing.

It should be noted, however, that being amid a group of people does not always lead one to become deindividuated, nor does it always lead to the ascendancy of social identity over individual identity. Often crowds do not engage in collective behavior at all. For example, on most city streets, pedestrians walking and milling about do not consider themselves to be part of a group and do not draw a sense of identity from the people around them.

Eugen Tarnow noted that these wide variations in the effect of crowds on individuals can be best understood by identifying two phases of a crowd: an individual phase and a conforming phase. During the individual phase, people move freely about. At these times, individuals are not particularly aware of their membership in a crowd and are not particularly influenced by those around them. In the conforming phase, however, individuals in a crowd are highly aware of the group of which they are a part, and they show high levels of conformity. During this phase, the group norms heavily influence each individual’s behavior. Crowds typically alternate between these two phases, sometimes acting collectively, sometimes individually. For example, at a sporting event, fans are sometimes talking to their friends about topics of individual interest. However, when points are scored by the home team, the crowd responds collectively, as part of a social group. At these moments spectators are not responding as individuals but as members of a social group, “fans.”

The behaviors that members of a crowd perform will thus depend on how strongly the crowd becomes a source of social identity and what behavioral norms become established among the group. Because these factors vary considerably from group to group, crowds cannot be characterized as wholly negative or uniformly simplistic, as Le Bon described them.

The Violent Crowd

Violent and destructive acts are among the most studied forms of crowd behavior. Many historical examples, from the French Revolution of 1789 to the Los Angeles riots of 1992, attest to the destructive power of crowds. However, a crowd of deindividuated people will not become violent unless a group norm of violence becomes established. In riots, for example, there is usually an identifiable precipitating event, such as one person smashing a window, that introduces a norm of violence. If a critical mass of people immediately follows suit, a riot ensues. Some other crowds, such as lynch mobs, have the norm of violence previously established by their culture or by the group’s previous actions.

Further, there is some evidence to suggest that the way in which a crowd of people is viewed by authorities can escalate crowd conflicts. For example, in 1998, European psychologists Clifford Stott and Stephen Reicher interviewed police officers involved with controlling a riot in Great Britain. Their analysis revealed that while police officers recognize that crowds contain subgroups of more dangerous or less dangerous members, they tend to treat all group members as potentially dangerous. The police officers’ negative expectations often translate into combative behavior toward all crowd members. By acting on their negative expectations, authority figures often elicit the very behaviors they hope to prevent, which often leads to increased violence and conflict escalation.

Much evidence suggests that there is a direct relationship between degree of deindividuation and the extremity of a crowd’s actions. For example, in 1986, Brian Mullen examined newspaper accounts of sixty lynchings that occurred in the first half of the twentieth century. His analysis revealed that the more people present in the mob, the more violent and vicious the event. Similarly, Leon Mann found in his analysis of twenty-one cases of threatened suicides that crowds watching were more likely to engage in crowd baiting (encouraging the person to jump from a ledge or bridge) when crowds were large and when it was dark. On a more mundane level, sports players are more aggressive when wearing identical uniforms than when dressed in their own clothes. Any factor that increases anonymity seems to increase deindividuation and the power of social identity, thus also increasing the likelihood of extreme behavior.

In South Africa, psychological research on these phenomena has been presented in murder trials. People being tried for murder have argued that these psychological principles help explain their antisocial behavior. The use of psychological research findings for these purposes has sparked a great deal of controversy in the field.

The Apathetic Crowd

While crowds are most infamous for inciting people to rash action, sometimes crowds inhibit behavior. Research on helping behavior suggests that helping is much less likely to occur when there are many people watching. This well-established phenomenon, known as the bystander effect, was researched and described by American psychologists John Darley and Bibb Latané. In a typical experiment, participants overhear an “accident,” such as someone falling off a ladder, and researchers observe whether participants go to help. Most people help when they are alone, but people are significantly less likely to help when they are with a crowd of other people. Darley and Latané argued that bystanders in a crowd experience a diffusion of responsibility—that is, each individual feels less personally responsible to act because each assumes that someone else will do so.

This phenomenon is exacerbated by the fact that in many situations, it is unclear whether an event is an emergency. For example, an adult dragging a screaming child out of a store could be a kidnapper making away with a child or a parent responding to a tantrum. Bystanders observe the reactions of others in the crowd to help them determine what the appropriate course of action is in an ambiguous situation. However, because the situation is ambiguous, typically each individual is equally confused and unsure. By waiting for someone else to act, bystanders convey the impression to others that they think nothing is wrong. Psychologists call this phenomenon pluralistic ignorance. People assume that even though others are behaving in exactly the same way as themselves (not acting), they are doing so for a different reason (knowing the situation is not an emergency). Thus, a social norm of inaction can also become established in a crowd.

The Prosocial Crowd

Despite the potential for great violence and destruction, most crowds that gather do so quite uneventfully. Further, sometimes crowd behavior is quite positive and prosocial. Research shows that sometimes deindividuation can lead to prosocial behavior. For example, nonviolent protests operate under an explicit norm of peaceful resistance and rarely lead to escalated violence on both sides. The power of prosocial norms was experimentally established in a 1979 study conducted by psychologists Robert Johnson and Leslie Downing. Johnson and Downing had participants dress in either nurses’ apparel or a white robe and hood like those worn by the Ku Klux Klan. Some from each group had their individual identity made known, while the rest did not. All participants were then given the opportunity to deliver an electric shock to someone who had previously insulted them. Among participants wearing the robes, those who were not identified delivered higher shock levels than those who were. Presumably these people were deindividuated and thus more strongly influenced by the violent cue of their costume. Of those in nurses’ uniforms, the opposite was observed. Unidentified, deindividuated participants gave much less intense shocks than identified participants did. They were also more strongly influenced by the cues around them, but in this case the cues promoted prosocial action.

Bibliography

Borch, Christian. "Crowd Theory and the Management of Crowds: A Controversial Relationship." Current Sociology 61.5/6 (2013): 584–601. Print.

Borch, Christian. The Politics of Crowds: An Alternative History of Sociology. New York: Cambridge UP, 2012. Print.

Coleman, A. M. “Crowd Psychology in South African Murder Trials.” American Psychologist 46.10 (1992): 1071–79. Print.

Drury, John, and Clifford Stott, eds. Crowds in the 21st Century: Perspectives from Contemporary Social Science. New York: Routledge, 2013. Print.

Gaskell, G., and R. Benewick, eds. The Crowd in Contemporary Britain. London: Sage, 1987. Print.

Le Bon, Gustave. The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind. London: Unwin, 1896. Print.

McPhail, Clark. The Myth of the Madding Crowd. New York: de Gruyter, 1991. Print.

Mann, L. “The Baiting Crowd in Episodes of Threatened Suicide.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 41.4 (1981): 703–9. Print.

Reicher, S. Crowd Behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. Print.

Reicher, S. “‘The Crowd’ Century: Reconciling Practical Success with Theoretical Failure.” British Journal of Social Psychology 35.4 (1996): 535–53. Print.

Surowiecki, James. The Wisdom of Crowds. New York: Anchor, 2005. Print.

Van Ginneken, Jaap. Crowds, Psychology, and Politics, 1871–1899. New York: Cambridge UP, 1992. Print.

What is human growth hormone?

Growth Hormones and Disease Symptoms

The pituitary (hypophysis) is an acorn-sized gland located at the base of the brain that makes important hormones and disseminates stored hypothalamic hormones. The hypothalamus controls the activity of the pituitary gland by sending signals along a network of blood vessels and nerves that connects them. The main portion of the pituitary gland, the adenohypophysis, makes six trophic hormones that control many body processes by causing other endocrine glands to produce hormones. The neurohypophysis, the remainder of the pituitary, stores two hypothalamic hormones for dissemination.

Dwarfism
is caused by the inability to produce growth hormone. When humans lack only human growth hormone (HGH), resultant dwarfs have normal to superior intelligence. However, if the pituitary gland is surgically removed (hypophysectomy), the absence of other pituitary hormones causes additional mental and gender problems. The symptoms of dwarfism are inability to grow at a normal rate or attain adult size. Many dwarfs are two to three feet tall. In contrast, some giants have reached heights of more than eight feet. The advent of gigantism
often begins with babies born with pituitary tumors that cause the production of too much HGH, resulting in continued excess growth. People who begin oversecreting HGH as adults (also caused by tumors) do not grow taller. However, the bones in their feet, hands, skull, and brow ridges overgrow, causing disfigurement and pain, a condition known as acromegaly.

Dwarfism that is uncomplicated by the absence of other pituitary hormones is treated with growth hormone injections. Humans undergoing such therapy can be treated with growth hormones from humans or primates. Growth hormone from all species is a protein made of approximately two hundred amino acids strung into a chain of complex shape. However, differences in amino acids and chain arrangement in different species cause shape differences; therefore, growth hormone used for treatment must be extracted from a related species. Treatment for acromegaly and gigantism involves the removal of the tumor. In cases where it is necessary to remove the entire pituitary gland, other hormones must be given in addition to HGH. Their replacement is relatively simple. Such hormones usually come from animals. For many years, the sole source of HGH was pituitaries donated to science. This provided the ability to treat fewer than one thousand individuals per year. Molecular genetics has solved that problem by devising the means to manufacture large amounts of transgenic HGH.

Growth Hormone Operation and Genetics

In the mid-1940s, growth hormone was isolated and used to explain why pituitary extracts increase growth. One process associated with HGH action involves cartilage cells at the ends of long bones (such as those in arms and legs). HGH injection causes these epiphysial plate cells (EPCs) to rapidly reproduce and stack up. The EPCs then die and leave a layer of protein, which becomes bone. From this it has been concluded that growth hormone acts to cause all body bones to grow until adult size is reached. It is unclear why animals and humans from one family exhibit adult size variation. The differences are thought to be genetic and related to production and cooperation of HGH, other hormones, and growth factors.

Genetic research has produced transgenic HGH in bacteria through the use of genetic engineering technology. The gene that codes for HGH is spliced into a special circular piece of DNA called a plasmid expression vector, thus producing a recombinant expression vector. This recombinant vector is then put into bacterial cells, where the bacteria express the HGH gene. These transgenic bacteria can then be grown on an industrial scale. After bacterial growth ends, a huge number of cells are harvested and HGH is isolated. This method enables isolation of enough HGH to treat anyone who needs it.

Impact and Applications

One use of transgenic HGH is the treatment of acromegaly, dwarfism, and gigantism. The availability of large quantities of HGH has also led to other biomedical advances in growth and endocrinology. For example, growth hormone does not affect EPCs in tissue culture. Ensuing research, first with animal growth hormone and later with HGH, uncovered the EPC stimulant somatomedin. Somatomedin stimulates growth in other tissues as well and belongs to a protein group called insulin-like growth factors. Many researchers have concluded that the small size of women compared to men is caused by estrogen-diminished somatomedin action on EPCs. Estrogen, however, stimulates female reproductive system growth by interacting with other insulin-like growth factors.

Another interesting experiment involving HGH and genetic engineering is the production of rat-sized mice. This venture, accomplished by putting the HGH gene into a mouse chromosome, has important implications for understanding such mysteries as the basis for species specificity of growth hormones and maximum size control for all organisms. Hence, experiments with HGH and advancements in genetic engineering technology have led to, and should continue to lead to, valuable insights into the study of growth and other aspects of life science.

Key terms




endocrine gland


:

a gland that secretes hormones into the circulatory system




hypophysectomy

:

surgical removal of the pituitary gland





pituitary gland


:

an endocrine gland located at the base of the brain; also called the hypophysis




transgenic protein

:

a protein produced by an organism using a gene that was derived from another organism





Bibliography

“Can We Prevent Aging? Tips from the National Institute on Aging.” National Institute on Aging. US Department of Health and Human Services, June 2010. Web. 4 Aug. 2014.

Cohen, Susan, and Christine Cosgrove. Normal at Any Cost: Tall Girls, Short Boys, and the Medical Industry’s Quest to Manipulate Height. New York: Tarcher, 2009. Print.

Eiholzer, Urs. Prader-Willi Syndrome: Effects of Human Growth Hormone Treatment. New York: Karger, 2001. Print.

Flyvbjerg, Allan, Hans Orskov, and George Alberti, eds. Growth Hormone and Insulin-Like Growth Factor I in Human and Experimental Diabetes. New York: Wiley, 1993. Print.

Ho, Ken. Growth Hormone Related Diseases and Therapy: A Molecular and Physiological Perspective for the Clinician. New York: Humana, 2011. Print.

Jorgensen, Jens Otto Lunde, and Jens Sandahl Christiansen, eds. Growth Hormone Deficiency in Adults. New York: Karger, 2005. Print.

Shiverick, Kathleen T., and Arlan L. Rosenbloom, eds. Human Growth Hormone Pharmacology: Basic and Clinical Aspects. Boca Raton: CRC, 1995. Print.

Smith, Roy G., and Michael O. Thorner, eds. Human Growth Hormone: Research and Clinical Practice. Totowa: Humana, 2000. Print.

Ulijaszek, J. S., M. Preece, and S. J. Ulijaszek. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Growth and Development Growth Standards. New York: Cambridge UP, 1998. Print.

Williams, Mary E. Growth Disorders. Farmington Hills: Greenhaven, 2012. Print.

In Lyddie, who was Lyddie's antagonist?

The antagonist is Mr. Marsden because he leered at Lyddie, forced himself on her, and got her fired.

An antagonist is an enemy, or the opposing force a character faces.  Lyddie’s first antagonist is probably Mrs. Cutler, because she is a horrible boss.  However, she is not at Cutler’s Tavern very long.  Although Mrs. Cutler makes life miserable for Lyddie and then fires her for leaving even though she had permission from the cook, she moved on from that experience.  Unfortunately, she found herself facing an even worse boss at the factory.

The factory system was very oppressive to begin with.  The girls had to live in the boarding house and do what the company told them, including dress a certain way and attend church.  Lyddie’s boss at the factory was a leering, completely inappropriate man.  When she was sick he forced himself on her when she couldn’t defend herself, trying to kiss her almost before she realized what was happening.

She tried to stare him down, but her eyes were burning in their sockets. Let me go! She wanted to cry. She tried to pull back from him, but he clutched tighter. He was bringing his strange little mouth closer and closer to her fiery face. (Ch. 16) 

Lyddie stomps him and stumbles away.  After this she is in a fever for several days, and nothing comes of the incident.  By the time she returns to work it is forgotten.  However, she still feels uncomfortable around him because of the way he stares at her. 

One day she sees Mr. Marsden and her friend Brigid.  He is trying to do the same thing to her.  Lyddie does not think.  She just hits him with a bucket. 

At the sound of her hoarse cry, the overseer whirled about.  She crammed the fire bucket down over his shiny pate, his bulging eyes, his rosebud mouth fixed in a perfect little O. The stagnant water sloshed over his shoulders and ran down his trousers. (Ch. 20) 

This time Lyddie is fired, and she accepts this.  He accuses her of being immoral, which is ironic since he is definitely the immoral once.  However, she does write a letter to Mr. Marsden’s wife exposing him and gives it to Brigid.  She tells her she must promise to give it to his wife if he targets her again.  It is the best she can do to protect her and the other girls from this predator.

How does Poe use writing strategies such as literary elements, techniques, or rhetorical devices to develop the central idea of "The Cask of...

One writing strategy which Poe uses to develop the central theme of justified revenge is that of imagery. The entire story is peppered with images and motifs which cast Montresor as a wronged avenger, and Fortunato as a simpering, dim-witted fool who is deserving of death. That these elements are so intricately and plentifully woven into the story is testament to Poe's genius. A particularly striking example is that of Montresor's coat of arms, in which a foot is depicted as having crushed a serpent. The serpent, however, has already dug its fangs into the skin of the foot. The coat's accompanying motto, written in Latin, is translated as "No one attacks me with impunity." The message is clear: Montresor envisions himself as a wily serpent who attacks, and poisons, the one who has oppressed him.

Further examples of imagery include Fortunato's costume, which is that of a clown or jester. Its bright colors and clanging bells contrast sharply with the stark and brooding figure of Montresor. Again, Montresor is the avenging angel, and Fortunato is the foolish foot. The entire setting of the story - a dark, decaying catacomb - also functions as imagery, in that Montresor leads the unwitting Fortunato to a terrfying and tomb-like place, where Fortunato will be (literally) buried. Silly Fortunato is drawn into a symbolic and actual tomb by the cunning Montresor, as punishment for his many sins. 

While imagery is a crucial part of Poe's depiction of a justified revenge, one can argue that perspective is just as powerful, if not more so. Indeed, it is Poe's use of perspective - that is, his authorial choice to tell the story from Montresor's viewpoint - which creates and nurtures a sense of righteousness in vengeance. Because Montresor is our sole narrator, we know only what he hells us; we must believe him when he proclaims that Fortunato has insulted and debased him, and that he deserves to die. For all we know, Montresor is lying, and Fortunato is totally innocent. We can only imagine what the story would be like if Fortunato were to narrate.

Montresor believes that his revenge is justified; therefore, within the context of his story, narrated by him, it is so. Also, his narration allows for expressions of his hatred to roam freely throughout the story. He constantly mocks Fortunato, claiming that he will not die of a cough, and ends the story with an acerbic, sociopathic jab ("In pace requiescat! [May he rest in peace!]"). Montresor is keen to let us, his audience, feel his righteous anger, and his pleasure in finally having punished Fortunato. These remarks, alongside perspective and imagery, help create the justified revenge of "The Cast of Amontillado."

What was John F. Kennedy trying to persuade the audience to do during his inaugural address?

And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country.

My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.

John F. Kennedy's inaugural speech is widely considered one of the best ever delivered. The most famous part, quoted above, illustrates the tenor of the speech, which was a call to service for Americans. As president, Kennedy created a variety of program including the Peace Corps that allowed Americans to serve others, both at home and abroad. He asks the American people to serve their country and other countries that are struggling. His plea is for selfless service without the expectation of reward. At the end of his speech, he asks Americans to pray for strength and for God's blessing but quickly states that here on earth, the work of God is the work of the American people. Kennedy also lays out a similar plan for the United States in the world, that American foreign policy should serve the needs of freedom in the world.  

When Lady Macbeth says "O, never shall sun that morrow see," what is she suggesting might happen to Duncan?

The quote refers to Lady Macbeth's conviction that king Duncan will not be alive the day after his stay at Lady Macbeth and her husband's home because she wants to help Macbeth murder him. Both Lady Macbeth and Macbeth agree that Duncan must be killed if Macbeth is to take the throne. He is the chief obstacle to Macbeth's biggest ambition. Both Macbeth and his wife are hungry for power and success, so Lady Macbeth wants to solidify her husband's desire to go after what he wants. She is his biggest support and will motivate him to summon enough courage in order to kill Duncan.

Lady Macbeth's conviction proves to be true because she does help Macbeth kill Duncan by motivating him verbally. Macbeth surrenders to his wife's insistence and his own ambition and kills Duncan. Afterwards, the murder is wrongly blamed on Duncan's children.

Why does Gary D. Schmidt write in second person in Okay for Now?

When writing in second person, the author has the narrator refer to the protagonist by the second-person pronoun you. Doing so can make it seem that the narrator is scolding the protagonist or the protagonist is doing some self-reflecting. Second-person narration is actually the rarest point of view to find in stories because it's very difficult to use effectively. Ohio University gives us the following example of second-person narration:

You missed the bus again because you just couldn't convince yourself to get out of bed. The comforter made a cozy nest around you, and there was the cat, a warm ball of fur curled next to you. So you had to walk all the way to work. ("Point of View and Narrative Voice")

Gary Schmidt actually uses Doug Swieteck, the story's protagonist, as his first-person narrator throughout Okay for Now. In contrast to second person, first person is created when an author uses first-person pronouns such as I and me. We can tell the story is written in fist person from the perspective of the protagonist by looking at the very first few sentences of the story:

Joe Pepitone once gave me his New York Yankees baseball cap.
I'm not lying.
He gave it to me. To me, Doug Swieteck. To me. (p. 7)

However, what is fascinating is that, all the way through, Doug tells the story to his reader as if he was speaking to a listening audience. In doing so, he occasionally tells his audience he has chosen to withhold certain information, such as details of Principal Peatie's insults. Also, he occasionally invites the audience into the story by addressing the audience in second person in such a way that he makes the audience share his same feelings. One example is seen in the first chapter when Doug relays a snide remark made by his father in reply to a legitimate concern expressed by his mother about their moving to a different town:

My father looked up from his two fried eggs. "How are we going to let Lucas know where we've gone? The U.S. Postal Service," he said in that kind of voice that makes you feel like you are the dope of the world. (p. 11)

In reality, it's Doug and his mother who are being made to feel stupid; however, in using the second-person pronoun you, Doug is making his reader feel what he and his mother feel by inviting the reader into the story.

How does Steinbeck present loneliness through Curley's wife in Of Mice and Men?

Along with the importance of friendship and the American dream, the pain of loneliness is a major theme in John Steinbeck's novella Of Mice and Men. While most of the characters deal with some level of loneliness, Curley's wife is particularly characterized as being lonely. 

Because she is the only girl on a ranch full of men, she is isolated. Most of the men are basically afraid of her, partly because she is young and pretty, but also because of the belligerent nature of her husband. When she tries to talk to them they are aloof and refer to her with derision labeling her with names such as tart, tramp, floozy and jailbait. She is neglected by Curley who is always supposedly looking for her which seems to be just an excuse to terrorize the men who work for his father. He probably mistreats her and even cheats on her as evidenced by the fact she is alone on Saturday night while Curley has gone into town, presumably to a whore house. Because of this she seeks attention from the other men on the ranch. 

It is in chapter four that she reveals her discontent with Curley and her overt loneliness. She goes into the barn where Crooks, Lennie and Candy have gathered in the black man's room. She is, of course, looking for Curley, but also admits her displeasure with him:

“Sure I gotta husban’. You all seen him. Swell guy, ain’t he? Spends all his time sayin’ what he’s gonna do to guy she don’t like, and he don’t like nobody. Think I’m gonna stay in that two-by-four house and listen how Curley’s gonna lead with his left twicet, and then bring in the ol’ right cross? ‘One-two,’ he says. ‘Jus’ the ol’ one-two an’ he’ll go down.’” 

In chapter five she continues to declare her loneliness when she is alone in the barn with Lennie. She is drawn to Lennie because she senses he won't dismiss her immediately. Though George has warned Lennie about the girl, he cannot help but be drawn in. She admits her loneliness in trying to interact with Lennie:

"Why can’t I talk to you? I never get to talk to nobody. I get awful lonely.” 

She tells Lennie she could have made something of herself and been in the movies. She implicitly blames her mother for the fact she married Curley and finally admits contempt for her husband:

“Well, I ain’t told this to nobody before. Maybe I oughten to. I don’ like Curley. He ain’t a nice fella.” 

As Crooks indicates in chapter four, Lennie is easy to talk to. He rarely remembers anything except what George tells him, but he eases Curley's wife's loneliness for a short time. She likes Lennie and tries to console him about the death of his puppy. She can relate to his obsession about petting soft things and says,

“But you’re a kinda nice fella. Jus’ like a big baby. But a person can see kinda what you mean. When I’m doin’ my hair sometimes I jus’ set an’ stroke it ‘cause it’s so soft.” 

The choice to pour out her heart to Lennie and allow him to touch her hair proves to be a bad idea. Her "ache" for attention is ultimately fatal as Lennie, who doesn't know his own strength, accidentally breaks her neck.

Like Candy (old and crippled) and Crooks (black and crippled), Curley's wife's difference is responsible for her sense of isolation and loneliness. She is out of place on the ranch and never truly understood by the men. She exacerbates the problem by trying to play the seductress and being flirtatious in a dangerous environment.    

What is smoking cessation? Can it help prevent cancer?

The depth of the problem: According to the US Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC), approximately 18 percent of adults in the United
States (42.1 million people) were smokers in 2012. The use of tobacco products
varies with gender, age, and ethnic background. Worldwide in 2012, the prevalence
of daily tobacco smoking in persons over the age of fifteen years was 31.1 percent
for men and from 6.2 percent for women.

According to the CDC, smoking is responsible for an estimated 480,000 deaths per
year in the United States and an additional 41,000 thousand deaths due to exposure
to secondhand
smoke. Smoking causes cancer, heart disease, stroke, and lung
diseases such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Cancer was among the first
diseases causally linked to smoking, and cigarette smoking is the leading
preventable cause of death in the United States. Smoking is the leading risk
factor for lung
cancer and is responsible for about 90 percent of all lung
cancer deaths. Smoking is estimated to increase the risk of coronary heart disease
by two to four times, of stroke by two to four times, and of lung cancer by
twenty-five times. Smoking causes damage to nearly every organ of the body.
Quitting smoking can add years to a person's life.

Smoking cessation is a difficult challenge that involves overcoming both physical
and psychological dependence. Most smokers are addicted to nicotine, a
psychoactive drug naturally found in tobacco products that produces dependence and
makes quitting difficult. In addition, smoking becomes a routine or habit that can
be hard to break, especially when it is as a coping mechanism for stress or
anxiety. Cessation is difficult and often requires multiple attempts. Users
commonly relapse because of withdrawal symptoms and mental
dependence. Cigarette cravings are usually the worst during the first two to three
days of smoking cessation; the physical symptoms of nicotine
addiction last for about three weeks after quitting smoking,
although the mental addiction to smoking typically lasts longer.

Quit and relapse rates: Approximately 70 percent of US adult smokers
reported in 2011 that they would like to quit, according to the CDC. In 2011, an
estimated 42.7 percent of adult smokers in the United States had attempted to quit
smoking during the preceding twelve months.

However, not all smokers are successful in their attempts to stop smoking, and
many try several times before they are able to quit. Less than 10 percent of
smokers who attempt to quit on their own have long-term success. The majority of
smokers cite symptoms of withdrawal and cravings as the main reasons for smoking
relapse. Most relapses occur within three months of quitting. However, the use of
effective treatments can double to triple the rates of successful smoking
cessation.

Health benefits of cessation: Smoking cessation leads to almost
immediate health benefits for people with and without smoking-related diseases.
For example, almost immediately after quitting, people experience improved
circulation, decreased blood pressure and pulse rates, and increased body
temperature in the hands and feet. In addition, cessation also leads to an almost
immediate improvement in such respiratory symptoms as coughing, wheezing, and
shortness of breath. Carbon monoxide and nicotine levels in the body rapidly
decrease.

In the long term, the health benefits of smoking cessation can be substantial.
Smoking cessation greatly reduces the risk of premature death by reducing the risk
of smoking-related diseases. Former smokers live longer than those who continue to
smoke; former smokers who quit by age thirty can have their health become as good
as a nonsmoker's. The risk of having a heart attack drops significantly within
one year after quitting smoking, and the chance of stroke can
fall to about that of a nonsmoker after two to five years. Smoking cessation
lowers the risk of developing and dying from lung cancer, other types of cancer,
and other diseases (such as heart disease, stroke, chronic
bronchitis, and emphysema). The risk of developing
cancer declines with the number of years of smoking cessation. For example, about
ten years after quitting, a former smoker’s risk of dying from lung cancer is 50
percent less than the risk faced by those who continued to smoke. After five years
of quitting, the risk of cancers of the mouth, throat, esophagus, and bladder is
cut in half. Additional benefits include an improved sense of taste and smell and
increased lung function. Furthermore, smoking decreases fertility in both men and
women. Women who stop smoking before or during pregnancy reduce their risk of
having miscarriages and having babies with low birth weights.
Smoking increases the risk of premature delivery, stillbirth,
and sudden infant
death syndrome (SIDS).

Although cessation is beneficial at all ages, the earlier a person stops smoking,
the greater the health benefits.

Smoking cessation methods: Smoking cessation is a two-step process
that includes overcoming the physical dependence on nicotine and breaking the
smoking habit. Methods used to increase smoking cessation rates include
medications, counseling, support groups, behavioral therapies, and alternative
therapies such as hypnotism and acupuncture.

Medications that have proven to be effective in treating tobacco dependence
include nicotine
replacement therapies (NRTs) and non-nicotine treatments,
such as bupropion and varenicline. NRTs are designed to provide
users with small amounts of nicotine that help reduce the craving for cigarettes
and relieve the withdrawal symptoms associated with smoking cessation, making it
easier to quit. Some are available over the counter without a doctor’s
prescription. Although they contain some nicotine, NRTs are not as bad as smoking
because they do not contain the toxins and carcinogens found in tobacco products.
Types of NRTs include gums, inhalers, nasal sprays, lozenges, and patches.
Although these treatments have been shown to be safe and effective when used as
directed, smokers should talk with their health care providers before beginning
any smoking cessation medication.

Nicotine gum (such as Nicorette), approved in 1984, was the first pharmacologic
smoking cessation aid approved by the US Food and Drug Association (FDA). The
recommended treatment is typically at least nine pieces of gum per day for the
first six weeks followed by a gradual reduction.

Available only by prescription, the nicotine inhaler (Nicotrol) is a plastic
cylinder that looks like a cigarette and has a cartridge that delivers nicotine.
After using nicotine inhalation for twelve weeks, your doctor may begin to
decrease your dose gradually. Side effects of nicotine inhalation include mouth
and throat irritation.

Nicotine nasal sprays are dispensed from pumps. The nicotine is rapidly absorbed
through the nasal membranes and quickly reaches the bloodstream. A usual dose is
one to two sprays following a craving to smoke. Side effects include nose and
throat irritation.

Nicotine patches (such as Nicoderm) release a constant amount of nicotine into the
body throughout the day. Most patches are replaced daily, and treatment periods
typically range from six to ten weeks. They come in different shapes and sizes.
Side effects of nicotine patches include skin irritation, dizziness, headache, and
nausea and vomiting. Some studies have suggested that the patch is less effective
than inhalers or gum because the continuous release of nicotine does not allow for
the individual to overcome periodic cravings.

In 2002, the first and only over-the-counter nicotine lozenge was introduced to
the market. It comes in the form of a hard candy and slowly releases nicotine as
it dissolves in the mouth. The most common side effects are sore teeth and gums,
indigestion, and throat irritation.

Available only by prescription, bupropion was approved by the FDA as a smoking
cessation aid in 1997. Unlike with NRTs, treatment with bupropion begins while the
user is still smoking, typically one week before the quit date, and continues for
seven to twelve weeks. Length of treatment is individualized. Common side effects
include insomnia, dry mouth, and dizziness.

The prescription drug varenicline was approved in 2006 for smoking cessation.
Typically, this nicotine-free tablet is taken twice daily for twelve weeks. Common
side effects include headache, nausea and vomiting, gas, insomnia, and change in
taste perception. Possible serious adverse effects include changes in behavior,
agitation, depressed mood, and suicide ideation. Individuals should discontinue
varenicline and immediately contact their doctor if such serious psychiatric
adverse effects occur.

All doctors should provide routine smoking cessation interventions to patients who
smoke, offering advice and support on how to quit. A combination of counseling and
medication is more effective than either alone, and both should be offered by
clinicians to aid in smoking cessation. Phone counseling (including quitlines),
group counseling, and individual counseling have all been shown to improve rates
of smoking cessation.

Symptoms of smoking withdrawal: Smokers who try to quit may face
physical and psychological symptoms of withdrawal. Physically, the body reacts to
the absence of nicotine. Symptoms of withdrawal include dizziness, depression,
irritability, anxiety, sleep disturbances, headaches, difficulty concentrating,
drowsiness, and increased appetite. They typically start within a few hours of the
last cigarette and peak about two to three days later. Mentally, the smoker must
break the habit of coping with stress by smoking.

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