Did television coverage of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960's increase or decrease support for civil rights among white Americans?

Television coverage of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s increased white support for the idea of civil rights.  It did so because it generally depicted peaceful African American protestors, who were asking for things that most whites thought were fairly reasonable and because it depicted those protestors being met with violence on the part of white authority figures.

Scholars of social movements say that a social movement has to “broaden the scope of conflict” in order to have a chance to win.  The social movement is generally made up of a group of people who are losing their conflict as it now stands.  In the case of the Civil Rights Movement, African Americans in the South were losing their conflict with Southern whites.  In order to have a chance to win, the movement has to make more people pay attention to their plight and, hopefully, take their side.  In the case of the Civil Rights Movement, this meant that Southern blacks had to get Northern whites to pay attention to them.

Television helped the movement get Northern whites to pay attention.  TV images were harder for whites to ignore than articles in newspapers and magazines.  Moreover, the TV images were generally in favor of the black protestors.  These images showed peaceful black protestors being met with violence.  There are famous images of protestors, asking for the right to vote, being attacked by police dogs or blown off their feet with jets from fire hoses.  These images helped make Northern whites more sympathetic towards the African Americans who were being treated so badly.  Thus, the TV coverage of the movement increased white support for civil rights. 

How do you calculate the horizontal component of a vector?

Vectors are quantities that have both a magnitude and a direction. A common example of a vector quantity is velocity of an object. Unlike speed, velocity is a vector quantity and needs both direction and magnitude for complete description. 

Anything that has a direction can be resolved into its x and y components. For example, when we throw a ball, in a projectile motion, it makes some angle with the horizontal. Knowing that angle and magnitude of velocity, we can resolve the velocity into its x and y components. We can use the basic understanding of trigonometry to do that. 

If the vector with a magnitude, M makes an angle of d degrees with the horizontal, the components of the vector can be calculated as:

Horizontal component = M cos d

Vertical component = M sin d

For example, a projectile thrown with a velocity of 10 m/s at an angle of 60 degrees to the horizontal, will have a horizontal component of

10 cos 60 = 5 m/s.

Hope this helps.

In To Kill A Mockingbird, provide three examples of what Jem says or does that indicates a change in his perspective on Boo Radley.

Jem starts out viewing Boo Radley as the neighborhood spook or boogie-man. When he tells Dill all about the mysterious house and shut-in, he describes Boo mostly using gossip told to him by Miss Stephanie Crawford. Things start to change, however, when Dill challenges Jem to get Boo Radley to come out of the house. This sparks a number of incidents where Jem and the kids are either playing in front of the house, acting out the Radley family history, or trying to peek into it, make contact with Boo, or otherwise entertain themselves with the idea of who Boo Radley is or might be. Three incidents are crucial to Jem changing his mind from Boo Radley being a spook to a real person: the mending of his pants, the gifts found in the tree, and the blanket wrapped around Scout.

First, when Jem and the kids are stalking the Radley place one summer night, Jem's pants get caught in the fence as they try to get away. Jem takes off his pants and leaves them behind in order to escape, but when he goes back for them in the middle of the night, he is shocked to discover the following:

"When I went back for my breeches—they were all in a tangle when I was gettin' out of 'em, I couldn't get 'em loose. . . When I went back, they were folded across the fence. . . like they were expectin' me. . . And something else—They'd been sewed up. Not like a lady sewed 'em, like something' I'd try to do. All crooked. It's almost like. . . somebody was readin' my mind" (58).

This is probably the first time that Jem feels as if Boo Radley is a friend rather than an enemy or spook.

Also, Jem and Scout had found little gifts like gum and pennies in the knothole of the Radley tree. After the pants incident, Jem starts thinking it might be Boo behind the gifts, too. He mentions to Scout that they should write a thank you note to whomever is behind the gifts and leave it in the knothole. As Jem starts writing the letter, he says, "Okay, Dear Mister. . ." The unsuspecting Scout says that it might be a woman like Miss Maudie; whereupon Jem says, "Ar-r, Miss Maudie can't chew gum" (61). This slip of Jem's "Ar-r" is the beginning of Boo Radley's first name, which is Arthur. He accidentally does this a couple of times, which suggests that Jem has figured out that it is Boo who leaves the gifts and possibly mended his pants as well.

A third clue that shows Jem's perspective about Boo Radley changes is the night of Miss Maudie's house fire. As Jem and Scout are standing in front of the Radley home watching the flames on a cold winter night, Scout receives a mysterious blanket around her shoulders. When Atticus later sees the blanket back at the Finch house, Jem realizes that Boo must have put that blanket on Scout's shoulders. Jem says the following about the situation:

"Boo Radley. You were so busy looking at the fire you didn't know it when he put the blanket around you. . . Just think, Scout, . . .if you'd just turned around, you'da seen him" (72).

As a result of the gifts in the tree, the mended pants, and the blanket around Scout's shoulders, Jem's perspective changes along with the evidence. He learns for himself about the character of Boo, and that is one of friendship and peace. Miss Stephanie Crawford would have people believe he's a violent nighttime stalker, but fortunately for the kids, Jem figures out through his own experience that Boo Radley is a friend.

I need help writing a report on Aeschylus and his plays. I want to get something across about the themes of his plays, which I'm pretty sure is...

Part of the answer depends on whether you are covering all seven of his plays or just the Oresteia. If the latter, you might want to focus more closely on vengeance and justice. As for a theme, all tragedies have some element of human suffering. A play in which no one suffered would not be a tragedy. Thus you might want to narrow your focus to emphasize that Aeschylus, more than the other Greek playwrights, seems concerned with the relationship between divine justice and human suffering. 

For your report, you might begin with what little is known about Aeschylus' biography, including his dates, the number of plays he is known to have written, and a list of the seven plays of his that have been preserved with brief summaries of all seven.

Next, you might want to place him in context by describing the state of Greek drama immediately before he began writing and then discuss his innovations. Some of the most crucial were introducing a second actor and adopting the third actor introduced by Sophocles. You should also cover his distinctive features, including the stately, ornate use of language and invention of many compound words, the habit of writing connected trilogies, and the radical innovation of his Persians, which is our only extant Greek tragedy set in a contemporary rather than legendary period. 

You should conclude with the thematic discussion of his plays.

Why is it important to try to determine the size of the fiscal policy multiplier?

Figuring out the multiplier effect in the context of fiscal policy is vital because the size of the multiplier allows policymakers to know how much stimulative effect each dollar can be expected to have in the real economy. The ability to measure and predict the multiplier effect lets policy-makers appropriate funds more efficiently, and allows them to learn from efforts that have had less of an effect than they had hoped.

To illustrate how this multiplier effect works, consider the following. If congress proposes a jobs bill aimed at creating jobs in the renewable energy sector, then they might decide to appropriate ten billion dollars for that aim. Let's say that those ten billion dollars can either go toward building five solar power plants in the southwest or toward building five wind farms in the Midwest.

Those two possible plans might have drastically different impacts based on the number of jobs each creates, even though they will both require the same outlay. If the solar power plants will employ 10,000 workers for twenty years, but the wind power plants will only require 4,000 workers for three years, it is likely that the multiplier effect of the solar plants will be far higher. That is because the workers at the solar plant will continue to earn a living for a longer period of time, and continue to spend the money they make to buy goods and services in the surroundings areas. Those hypothetical 10,000 workers in the southwest will end up buying more groceries, going out to more restaurants, buying more houses or renting more apartments, and so on. That in turn will create and/or sustain more jobs, which will in turn spur more spending and consumption, in a virtuous cycle that spreads through the economy.

Understanding this ripple effect also makes the location of a proposed factory important to consider. The more remote a factory is, for instance, the less likely its workers will be to spend their disposable income on dining, entertainment and other products and services in the nearby community, like movie theaters, restaurants and clothing stores. As a result, the multiplier effect of that fiscal stimulus might be limited. On the other hand, if the arrival of a factory in a small town convinces small businesses to open up nearby in order to serve those workers, that could prove more stimulative than if the power plant is built near an-already bustling city. We know this because new businesses tend to hire more workers than established businesses.

So, before policymakers decide where and how to inject fiscal stimulus, they need to figure out what kind of stimulus will be the most productive. Most people believe that the bailout of the auto industry, as part of the 2009 stimulus package, was a very smart use of funds, because the automobile manufacturing industry supports millions of jobs in both auto manufacturing and in related industries like auto repair, auto part manufacturing, car dealerships, car insurance companies, car washes, gas stations, tire makers, etc.

Economists also believe that giving tax cuts to lower wage workers is more stimulative to the economy in the short term than giving tax breaks to more affluent workers, simply because lower wage workers tend to spend almost all of their wages quite quickly, while higher wage workers tend to save more. All of these factors and more determine the multiplier effect of any fiscal stimulus, and policymakers must consider these carefully before enacting stimulus policies.

During what month does Meursault's trial begin?

In The Stranger, Meursault's trial for the murder of the Arab begins in June. This is shown in the opening paragraph of Part 2, Chapter Three, in which Meursault says:

My case was down for the last sessions of the Assize Court, and those sessions were due to end some time in June.

Meursault does not give an exact date for his trial. Instead, he says that the day is one of "brilliant sunshine" and that his trial is expected to last two or three days. 

At the end of the previous chapter, Meursault informs us that he has spent six months in jail but, to him, it feels like "one and the same day." During this time, he has been questioned over and over by his lawyer and the examining magistrate, he has learned to live without Marie and to sleep for most of the day in his cell. Time has become an abstract concept for Meursault and this feeling is intensified as he awaits the legal decision which will determine the rest of his life. 

In "The Most Dangerous Game" by Richard Connell, what is ironic about Zaroff's statement, "Oh, you can trust me... I will give you my word as a...

It is ironic that Zaroff wants Rainsford to trust him because he has already tricked him.

Zaroff has proven himself to be of a low moral character several times by the time he asks Rainsford to trust him.  After all, he tricked Rainsford into playing the game. He also showed him how he trapped ships for prey.

When Rainsford sits down to dinner with Zaroff, the general treats him like a guest and not at all like a prisoner. They discuss Zaroff’s past, and Zaroff tells Rainsford he knows who he is because he has read his books on hunting. By all accounts, he seems to be treating Rainsford as an equal and showing him great respect.

Even when Rainsford and Zaroff discuss the concept of murder, Rainsford has no idea that he is going to be participating in Zaroff’s game as prey. He assumes that Zaroff is offering to let him hunt with him.

"Why should I not be serious? I am speaking of hunting."

"Hunting? Great Guns, General Zaroff, what you speak of is murder."

The general laughed with entire good nature. He regarded Rainsford quizzically. "I refuse to believe that so modern and civilized a young man as you seem to be harbors romantic ideas about the value of human life.”

This conversation seems to be further proof that Zaroff is tricking Rainsford. He seems good-natured and at ease. He debates philosophy and morality with Rainsford. There is no hint at all that he is going to force Rainsford to let him hunt him.

By the time Rainsford finds out what is really happening, he is shocked.

"And if I win—" began Rainsford huskily.

"I'll cheerfully acknowledge myself defeat if I do not find you by midnight of the third day," said General Zaroff. "My sloop will place you on the mainland near a town." The general read what Rainsford was thinking.

The general seems to be indicating that Rainsford should just take him at his word and trust him. This is ironic because nothing General Zaroff has done at this point has been honest. He has been sneaky and dishonest from the beginning, luring Rainsford in to make him let his guard down before springing the surprise on him, which is his role in the game. That does not inspire confidence that he will let Rainsford live if he wins. 

When did Romeo die in Romeo and Juliet?

Romeo dies in Act V, Scene 3 of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. His death and Juliet's is actually announced by Shakespeare in the sixth line of the Prologue:

A pair of star-crossed lovers take their life

In Act V, Scene 1 Romeo, who is exiled in Mantua, learns from his servant Balthasar that Juliet has died. In reality, she is only faking her death with a potion concocted by Friar Lawrence. Unfortunately, the message to Romeo informing him of this news never arrives as Friar John is delayed by a plague threat in Verona. Romeo buys poison from an apothecary and plans to kill himself in the Capulet tomb next to Juliet. When he arrives at the tomb he is confronted by Count Paris, who is there to pay his respects to Juliet. Paris, of course, is unaware of Romeo and Juliet's relationship and also the Friar's plan. Romeo is not to be dissuaded from entering the tomb and he kills Paris. 

When he arrives inside the tomb he sees both Juliet and Tybalt. He comments that Juliet still looks very much alive: 

Death, that hath sucked the honey of thy breath,
Hath had no power yet upon thy beauty.
Thou art not conquered. Beauty’s ensign yet
Is crimson in thy lips and in thy cheeks,
And death’s pale flag is not advancèd there.

He goes on a little more about Juliet's beauty and then kisses her before and then after drinking the vial of poison. His last words are:

Here’s to my love. [Drinking.] O true apothecary,
Thy drugs are quick. Thus with a kiss I die.

In some stage directions it then says "He falls" and yet others say "He dies." No matter, he is dead before Juliet awakens.

In what ways do Demetrius and Egeus attempt to control Hermia?

Both Demetrius, who wants to marry Hermia against her will, and Egeus, her father, who wants her to marry Demetrius, appeal to the power of the state in the form of Theseus, the Duke of Athens, in order to force Hermia to marry Demetrius. Hermia, however, is in love with Lysander, and communicates this to Theseus. He responds by telling her that she must treat her father as a god and do what he commands. Hermia says she wishes her father could see through her eyes and Theseus tells her that, in fact, she should try to understand life through her father's eyes and learn to align herself to his desires. In other words, he informs her that she needs to conform to a patriarchal system and do what the dominant male wants. Theseus then tells her that if she doesn't do what her father demands and marry Demetrius, she will have to either face the death penalty or life in an Athenian nunnery dedicated to the goddess Diana. We see how well this attempt to control Hermia works: like most young people in love, she is not about to be told what to do, and she and Lysander run off together. 

What were the positive and negative effects of the Industrial Revolution?

The Industrial Revolution ushered in sweeping changes, many of which still resonate in our society today. Let us look at a few of these changes, which I have grouped under the headings "positive" and "negative."

Positive: The Industrial Revolution accompanied what was known as the "Great Deflation," which was a drastic lowering of prices on manufactured goods and foodstuffs. Part of this was due to the new efficiency with which industrialists produced first capital goods and then consumer goods. People had access to cheap manufactured goods that changed their standard of living. The Industrial Revolution made businesses more productive, contributed to major scientific advances in energy, transportation, and medicine, and, in the case of the United States, made the nation the wealthiest in the world.

Negative: All of these changes came a tremendous human cost. The Industrial Revolution flourished alongside laissez-faire ideology that militated against the kinds of regulations that minimized this cost. Workers labored under difficult, even dangerous conditions and more disciplined schedules than before. Children were thrust into factories, mines, and other workplaces to perform cheap labor. In most countries, the Industrial Revolution led to a new plutocratic class that reaped the benefits of economic expansion far more than the working class, who lived on the edge of poverty. Large monopolistic corporations, known at the time as "trusts," controlled many industries, setting prices and eliminating the competition that supposedly underlay industrial capitalism. So many of the effects of the Industrial Revolution on the lives of ordinary people were mixed at best.

What does Jerry accomplish by swimming through the tunnel in the story "Through the Tunnel"?

Jerry completes a rite of passage by successfully swimming through the underwater tunnel.

When the English boy Jerry, who is on holiday with his mother, first leaves her and goes to the bay, he swims out to where rocks are "like discolored monsters under the surface," and he finds himself out in the real sea. Then, he swims back to a cape with "a loose scatter of rocks" where some older boys, native to the coast, run.

To be with them, of them, was a craving that filled his whole body.

When one of them smiles and waves, Jerry swims in and out of the rocks with them. But, when they realize that he is a foreigner and does not understand them, they ignore him. Still, they part for him to dive with them. Shortly after this, the largest boy dives and does not soon reappear. Worried that something has happened to him, Jerry cries out in warning. However, after some time, this boy resurfaces and the others dive into the water in the same manner. Jerry can see nothing when he plunges under the water, but when he surfaces, the others are all on the first rock in order to repeat their feats. "They looked down gravely, frowning." Jerry is embarrassed and acts silly, splashing the water and yelling in English, "Look at me! Look!" But, as he does this, water fills his mouth and he sinks, then resurfaces; in the meantime, the older boys have all dived down into the water caves of rock. When they resurface, they return to the shore without looking back at him.

So, in his embarrassment Jerry returns to his mother's beach and tells her that he wants some swimming goggles right away. He pesters his mother until she goes with him to a shop. After she makes the purchase, Jerry grabs the goggles and runs to the bay where he can now search for the opening in the rocks through which the older boys have swum. Having found the hole in the great rock, Jerry returns to the hotel, dreaming of it at night. The next day he rushes to the bay and he practices holding his breath so that he can be able to swim through this tunnel.

After four days his mother tells him that they must soon return home. So Jerry decides that he will complete his passage through the underwater tunnel on the day before they depart. He goes to the bay with his goggles and although his lungs are now in condition, Jerry's head pulses. Nevertheless, he perseveres and he successfully swims through the tunnel. "Victory filled him" as he feels more mature. When he tears off his goggles a clout of blood washes into the sea, but he just splashes his face clear of anything. Then, he sees the local boys, but now "he did not want them." He just wants to go home. After he rests, Jerry swims to the shore and returns to his mother with the knowledge that he can do what the older boys can; he merely tells him mother that he can hold his breath for two or three minutes. He has made his rite of passage into adolescence: "It was no longer of the least importance to go to the bay." 

What is the impact on Scout and Jem when Atticus takes on Tom Robinson's case? How do they cope?

Scout and Jem are subjected to insults and derogatory comments from their neighbors, pupils, and family members because their father, Atticus, is defending Tom Robinson. Atticus encourages his children to maintain control of their anger and to be tolerant of their neighbors whenever they are insulted. Scout tries her best to control her temper, and thinks of Atticus' advice when Cecil Jacobs, her pupil, tells her that his family thinks Atticus is a disgrace. However, Scout ends up fighting her cousin, Francis, for calling her father a "nigger-lover," and telling her that Atticus is ruining the family. Jem, who is typically mild-mannered, loses his temper after their prejudiced neighbor, Mrs. Dubose, says Atticus is no better than the niggers he works for. Jem and Scout also deal with their Aunt Alexandra hassling their father, which creates tension throughout the household. The children worry about their father's safety because they understand that the citizens of Maycomb resent Atticus for defending Tom. They narrowly avoid a dangerous situation after they follow Atticus to Maycomb's jailhouse, and continue to worry about what Bob Ewell will do to Atticus following the trial.

Despite the negative attention that Atticus' choice to defend Tom brings his children, Jem and Scout receive support from their loving father, Miss Maudie, Calpurnia, and their friend, Dill. Miss Maudie is a constant source of encouragement to Jem and Scout, and reminds them that Atticus is a brave, morally upright man. Scout and Jem continually ask their father questions regarding Tom's case and their neighbors' reactions to what Atticus is doing. Atticus helps the children cope by teaching them the errors in their prejudiced neighbors' opinions. Atticus also encourages his children to do the right thing, and to be respectful no matter what. Dill helps take Jem and Scout's minds off the case, and entertains them with his various stories and games. The love and support that Jem and Scout receive from their friends and family help them cope while Atticus defends Tom Robinson in a prejudiced town.

Based on the essay "Tragedy and the Common Man" by Arthur Miller, could the character Jay Gatsby, from the book "The Great Gatsby," be considered a...

In a word: Absolutely. Arthur Miller, in his essay, seeks to modernize the term "tragic hero," because he feels it's become "archaic, fit only for the very highly placed, the kings or the kingly." By looking at what drives Jay Gatsby in his quest to win Daisy's love and comparing it to the elements of a tragic hero set forth in Miller's "Tragedy and the Common Man," it can be fairly easily argued that Gatsby fits the definition of a common tragic hero. 

One of the characteristics Miller focuses on first is the tragic hero's sense of personal dignity. 

"Sometimes he is one who has been displaced from it, sometimes one who seeks to attain it for the first time, but the fateful wound from which the inevitable events spiral is the wound of indignity, and its dominant force is indignation." 

Jay Gatsby has been displaced from his personal dignity. The Gatsby that Nick Carraway meets is a shell of his former self, a fact readers see as they learn more about Gatsby's past from him recollections and Nick's narration, as well as Daisy's emotion when she interacts with Gatsby. Gatsby seeks to find his dignity through lies and deceit as well as his money and parties. But, like Miller says, he suffers the "wound of indignity." No matter how hard Gatsby tries, he continues to fall short of winning Daisy's love. Not because she doesn't love him, but because, as Nick says, "You can't repeat the past." Gatsby shows his desperation and indignity with his response: " 'Can't repeat the past?' he cried incredulously. 'Why, of course you can!' " 

Miller also clarifies that a tragic hero's "tragic flaw" need not be a weakness in his character. Readers who can't argue that Gatsby's death is the result of a weakness in his character can still see him as a tragic hero when they consider that:

"The flaw, or crack in the character, is really nothing--and need be nothing, but his inherent unwillingness to remain passive in the face of what he conceives to be a challenge to his dignity, his image of his rightful status."

Again, this describes Jay Gatsby to a "T." His image of his rightful status is that he and Daisy should be married; however, even more than that, he wants Daisy's time with Tom to be completely erased. 

"He wanted nothing less of Daisy than that she should go to Tom and say 'I never loved you.' After she had obliterated four years with that sentence they could decide upon the more practical measures to be taken."

Throughout his essay, Arthur Miller seeks to not only redefine the tragic hero, but to modernize him as well. By looking at major literary figures like Jay Gatsby, readers can expand their scope of understanding and realize that "tragedy" is not just reserved for Shakespeare and Sophocles. 

Why is concrete is a mixture and not a pure substance?

Pure substances are substances composed of identical particles. The particles in a pure substance can be identical element particles or identical compound particles. For example, a sample of pure water is composed of identical `~H_2O ` compound particles. 

Mixtures are substances that are composed of two or more different types of particles. The particles in a mixture are still composed of elements and compounds, but they are not all identical. For example, a mixure of salt and water is composed of dissolved salt compound particles and water compound particles.

Cement is a mixture composed of several different compound particles. These include: calcium oxide, silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, iron oxide, and calcium sulfate dihydrate. Cement is a mixture because it is composed of different types of compound particles. Each of the components of concrete by themselves would be pure substances. For example, a sample of just calcium oxide would be a pure substance because the particles in the sample would all be identical calcium oxide compounds.

What other specific examples of prejudice, except racism, insulting religion, and unrealistic views about Christians and Jews, are represented in...

Prejudice can be defined as a judgement or opinion that one has to a person, thing or situation which is not based on actual experience or rational thought. The term is usually used to define a preconceived value or appreciation that one attaches to other people with whom one has dealings with, whether for a brief moment or a lengthy period of time. As mentioned in the question, racism is an example of prejudice. 

In the play, prejudice also rears its ugly head in the association between Shylock and his servant, Launcelot. It is obvious that Shylock ill-treats Launcelot and does not give him his due. This is because Shylock sees him as below his status and thus deems him inferior. It is impossible for him to perceive Launcelot as an equal in human terms and he, therefore, maintains a supercilious approach towards him. Shylock's abuse clearly upsets Launcelot and he decides to leave his service and work for Bassanio, who, he believes, will treat him better.   

Launcelot distinctly states his dissatisfaction with Shylock's treatment of him when he speaks to his father, Gobbo in scene 2 of Act 2 (lines 111 to 117):

...My master's a very Jew: give
him a present! give him a halter: I am famished in
his service; you may tell every finger I have with
my ribs. Father, I am glad you are come: give me
your present to one Master Bassanio, who, indeed,
gives rare new liveries: if I serve not him, I
will run as far as God has any ground...

Launcelot wants to get as far away from Shylock as possible and states that if he should not be appointed by Bassanio, would run as far as he possibly can to be rid of Shylock. 

In her conversations with Nerissa, Portia also displays a somewhat prejudicial attitude towards her suitors. She makes a number of derogatory remarks about them without really knowing much about their background or who they really are. She is quite judgmental in her approach.

This may be borne from her displeasure of not being able to have the freedom to choose a partner and is an expression of her irritation with the limitations set by her father's will, or it may be a reflection of a natural inclination to judge by what she sees. She does not have much choice in the matter anyway, and may be forgiven her sentiments in the circumstances.

Her preconceived notions are best illustrated when she says, in Act 1, scene 2, (lines 41 - 43), the following about the prince of Morocco whom she has not seen yet:

...if he have the condition
of a saint and the complexion of a devil, I had
rather he should shrive me than wive me...

Her statement suggests a racist prejudice, for the suggestion is that if the prince were black, she would prefer him hearing her confession (as a priest would) than be his wife. 

She does, however, display a favourable prejudice towards Bassanio, whom she also does not really know, as she states in Act 1, scene 2:

PORTIA
Yes, yes, it was Bassanio; as I think, he was so called.

NERISSA
True, madam: he, of all the men that ever my foolish
eyes looked upon, was the best deserving a fair lady.

PORTIA
I remember him well, and I remember him worthy of
thy praise.

One can also deem Antonio's attitude towards Shylock's moneylending practice as a form of economic prejudice. Criticising the Jew for lending out money at interest, implies that Antonio wishes to limit Shylock's source of income. Moneylending is his business and denying him the right to lend out money for profit without truly understanding the practice, is harmful to the Jew. Shylock mentions Antonio's disdain in this regard in scene 3 of Act 1 (lines 49 - 52):

...he rails,
Even there where merchants most do congregate,
On me, my bargains and my well-won thrift,
Which he calls interest.

What viewpoint is expressed by the author in “The Story of an Hour”?

Kate Chopin's "The Story of an Hour" is told in the omniscient, third person point of view. This viewpoint allows for the narrator of the story to be all-knowing (omniscient) and to share with the readers information that the characters may not be privy to, given their experiences. 

This point of view makes it possible for both of the following pieces of information to be accurate and believable: 

He [Richards] had only taken the time to assure himself of its truth by a second telegram, and had hastened to forestall any less careful, less tender friend in bearing the sad message. 

and 

Into this she [Mrs. Mallard] sank, pressed down by a physical exhaustion that haunted her body and seemed to reach into her soul.

An omniscient point of view allows for readers to experience what Richards felt when he first received the news of Mr. Mallard's death as well as for them to experience what Mrs. Mallard feels in the moments following the news being broken to her. 

Omniscient point of view can be a tremendously useful device, particularly in cases where there are key plot elements happening in different times and places in a story.

What is diethylstilbestrol (DES)?

Exposure routes: Patients are exposed to DES when it is used in medical therapies and in clinical trials for the treatment of prostate and breast cancer. It is typically administered orally or intravenously. Potential exposure by inhalation can occur to workers who are involved in the formulation and manufacturing of diethylstilbestrol.

Where found: DES is found at sites where it is manufactured, packaged, and supplied. It can be found at medical facilities where it is prepared and administered during cancer clinical trials and treatments. During the 1970s, it was found in cattle and sheep that were injected with diethylstilbestrol to promote their growth.

At risk: Patients who are treated with DES for prostate cancer and breast cancer are at high risk. Workers at locations where diethylstilbestrol is manufactured, packaged, and supplied for cancer clinical trials are at risk for contamination. Health care professionals who prepare and administer DES for cancer therapy risk contamination, as do workers in labs where diethylstilbestrol is used in biochemical research.

Etiology and symptoms of associated cancers: DES behaves as a hormonal therapy. By acting as a chemical messenger in the body, it helps control the activity of cells and organs. When administered to pregnant women to help prevent miscarriages or premature deliveries, DES can cause clear-cell adenocarcinoma (CCA) of the vagina and cervix in the mother and in daughters exposed before birth. In sons exposed before birth, DES can increase the risk of testicular cancer. Since DES reduces the level of testosterone in the body, it helps slow down the growth of prostate cancer cells. Side effects of diethylstilbestrol chemotherapy include breast tenderness, lowering of sex drive, tiredness, nausea, and weight gain.

History: DES was first synthesized in 1938 at the University of Oxford. It was the first synthetic estrogen. In 1941 diethylstilbestrol was found to be effective in the treatment of gonorrheal vaginitis, menopausal symptoms, and metastatic prostate cancer. Between the 1940s and the 1980s, it was used as estrogen-replacement therapy in estrogen-deficient women. After epidemiological studies of women linked DES to vaginal and cervical cancers, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advised in 1971 that it no longer be given to pregnant women. To a large extent, tamoxifen has replaced the use of DES in breast cancer treatments, as has leuprolide in the treatment of prostate cancer.

Bibliography

Amer. Cancer Soc. "Known and Probable Human Carcinogens." Cancer.org. ACS, 17 Oct. 2013. Web. 29 Sept. 2014.

Langston, Nancy. Toxic Bodies: Hormone Disruptors and the Legacy of DES. New Haven: Yale UP, 2010. Digital file.

Natl. Cancer Inst., Natl. Inst. of Health. "Diethylstilbestrol (DES) and Cancer." Cancer.gov. NCI/NIH, 5 Oct. 2011. Web. 29 Sept. 2014.

Natl. Cancer Inst., Natl. Inst. of Health. "Women Exposed to DES in Womb Face Increased Cancer Risk." Cancer.gov. NCI/NIH, 5 Oct. 2011. Web. 29 Sept. 2014.

Natl. Inst. of Environmental Health Sciences. Endocrine Disruptors. Research Triangle Park: NIEHS/NIH, 2010. Digital file.

Natl. Inst. for Occupational Safety and Health, CDC, Dept. of Health and Human Services. NIOSH ALERT: Preventing Occupational Exposures to Antineoplastic and Other Hazardous Drugs in Health Care Settings. Cincinnati: NIOSH/CDC, 2004. Digital file.

Natl. Toxicology Program, Dept. of Health and Human Services. "Diethylstilbestrol." Report on Carcinogens, Twelfth Edition. N.p.: NTP/NIEHS/NIH, 2011. Digital file.

What is this story about?

This story is about a society that runs a lottery every year in order to determine which community member will be stoned to death.  

The story begins innocently enough.  Members of the community are gathering in a central common area.  Children are playing at the perimeter and gathering stones . . . for some unknown purpose.  The reader catches bits and pieces of conversations that are happening, and everything seems like a typical, happy societal get together.  Attendance is taken in order to make sure that as many community members are there as possible.  Mr. Summers is in charge of the proceedings, and it is his job to make sure that every person and family has a slip of paper in the box.  Eventually Tessie Hutchinson's name is pulled from the box, and despite her cries that it is unfair, the community promptly stones her to death.  

Thematically, the story is about oppression, tradition, violence, scapegoats, violence, and even gender roles.  

Compare the importance of pilgrimage in medieval Islam and medieval Christianity.

Pilgrimage has been a feature of many religions, and Christianity and Islam are no exception. While there are similarities, it’s important to note the primary difference between Christian and Islamic pilgrimage. In Islam, pilgrimage to Mecca (the Hajj) is a religious requirement, while in Christianity, no such obligation exists. While the motivation for each community differed, both Christian and Islamic medieval pilgrimages were oriented around the attempt to reach a place deemed sacred by the religious community for the intended goal of obtaining spiritual benefit. In both cases, the destination could be a holy place (Mecca, Rome, Jerusalem) or a shrine that contained relics of saints or exemplars. 

Christianity

A primary motivation for late medieval Christian pilgrimage to holy sites associated with saints was the acquisition of indulgences, which basically amounted to the promise of intercession from the Church on behalf of the pilgrim for the lessening of punishment for sins, whether in this life or in purgatory. In contrast, earlier Christians sought holy places as a way to retreat from earthly life and seek out spiritual and heavenly contemplation. The Crusades were also framed as a pilgrimage of sorts, for which all manner of spiritual reward could be promised.

Islam

Pilgrimage in Islam is associated most strongly with the Hajj, a journey to Mecca that all Muslims are required to make once in their lifetime. Aside from this, the idea of a sacred journey to a holy place developed for the purpose of gaining blessings, cures, or knowledge about the Prophet Muhammad, his companions, and other exemplary Muslims. Medieval Muslims had the benefit of guides created specifically to help the faithful undertake these journeys. However, Islam does not have the concept of sainthood as Christians do, and eventually these lesser pilgrimages were seen as undesirable, with the concern that the importance placed on exemplary humans took away the focus from God.   

What is the historical importance of the novel Deliverance?

Although it's a relatively simple straightforward story, Deliverance is in many ways a continuation of very old American anxieties and a reflection of the era in which it was written. Since the rapid expansion of territory and increased use of technology that began in the 19th century, many Americans have felt a sense of over-civilization, feeling that all the modern convenience has disconnected them from the natural world and a kind of pioneering spirit that contributed to the development of the United States. This perspective is espoused by Lewis, who has organized the trip as a way to get back to nature and celebrate their masculinity.

Not long after beginning their trip, the group starts to recognize that the reality doesn't quite match Lewis' primitivist fantasy. Not only do they lack the skills to navigate what they come to recognize as an isolated and rugged terrain, but they are also eventually attacked by locals, which dramatically changes the group dynamic and gives things a much more serious and dangerous tone as they fight for their lives trying to get to safety.

Written in 1970, Deliverance was published during a time of considerable social unrest in the US. Not only was the country involved in an increasingly divisive war, but it was also undergoing significant cultural transformation. This is the era of civil rights when African-Americans, the LGBT community, and feminism were pushing hard to change the social hierarchy that placed a very high value on straight white men. The influence of these movements is reflected in the character of Lewis, who is hypermasculine and somewhat resentful of the others for not being as adventurous (masculine).

Although there are other books released around that time that are probably more historically significant, many are written from the perspective of the marginalized or oppressed. Deliverance, on the other hand, reflects the ways that modernity, feminism, and the changing social structure of the United States affected many men, particularly the feelings of loss and disconnection that many felt.

In A Raisin in the Sun, how does Ruth handle Walter's rudeness?

In A Raisin in the Sun, Ruth handles Walter's rudeness with emotional support.

Similar to her Biblical namesake, Hansberry constructs Ruth as a supportive and caring figure who handles Walter's rudeness.  Ruth does not contradict her husband when he is rude to her or her family.  Rather, she counters it with support, love, and devotion towards her perceived duty as a wife and caretaker of the family.  For example, in the opening scene, Walter is rude to Ruth because she does not immediately voice full throated support for his ideas:

Walter: See there, that just goes to show you what women understand about the world. Baby, don’t nothing happen for you in this world ‘less you pay somebody off!
Ruth: Walter, leave me alone! Eat your eggs, they gonna be cold.

Walter is fairly rude in making the assumption that Ruth does not understand the world.  Instead, she redirects him to eating.  Ruth fulfills what she sees as her duty as a wife.  She supports her husband by suggesting that he take care of himself and finish his meal.  She does not rebuke him or aggressively challenge him like her sister- in- law would.  Rather, her approach in dealing with his rude demeanor is to focus on her job as a caretaker of the family. Ruth is able to find a path beyond Walter's rudeness through her nurturing capacity.

What is ephedrine?

History of Use

Ephedrine has been used as an herbal preparation (ma huang) for thousands of years in Chinese medicine as a treatment for asthma and bronchitis. A Japanese chemist, Nagayoshi Nagai, first isolated ephedrine from the plant E. distachya in 1885, and it has been used in Western medicine since that time.

Ephedrine acts to increase the activity of noradrenaline on adrenergic receptors in the brain. It indirectly stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and can cross the blood-brain barrier and affect the central nervous system directly by causing the release of noradrenaline and dopamine. Thus, its action is similar to that of the drugs amphetamine and methamphetamine. Ephedrine can also be used in the production of methamphetamine due to the drugs' similar chemical structures.

Ephedrine has been abused by athletes, particularly by weightlifters and bodybuilders, because it is thought to act as an appetite suppressant and may promote fat utilization. Many athletes need to maintain a certain weight and body fat percentage before competition, leading to ephedrine’s use, often in combination with caffeine and aspirin. In 2004, the US Food and Drug Administration banned the use of ephedrine in dietary supplements aimed at weight loss.

Effects and Potential Risks

Ephedrine has many legitimate medical uses, primarily in the treatment of respiratory problems but also to treat hypotension, narcolepsy, certain types of depression, and myasthenia gravis (an autoimmune neuromuscular disorder). However, ephedrine has many potentially serious side effects, and persons with heart disease, angina pectoris, hyperthyroidism, diabetes, and enlarged prostate must be closely supervised by their physicians during use of the substance.

Side effects of ephedrine include nervousness, panic disorder, insomnia, vertigo, difficult breathing, headache, tachycardia (rapid and erratic heartbeat), nausea, anorexia, and painful urination. Ephedrine should not be used during pregnancy except under extremely close medical supervision. Negative drug interactions occur between ephedrine and certain antidepressants, namely serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Ephedrine should not be used with medications for cough and congestion.

Bibliography

"Ephedra." New York State Office of Alcoholism and Substance Abuse Services. New York State, n.d. Web. 29 Oct. 2015.

Fontanarosa, Phil B., Drummond Rennie, and Catherine D. DeAngelis. “The Need for Regulation of Dietary Supplements: Lessons from Ephedra.” Journal of the American Medical Association 289 (2003): 1568–70. Print.

Kuhar, Michael J., and Howard Liddle. Drugs of Abuse. New York: Marshall Cavendish Reference, 2012. Print.

Martin, Elizabeth. An A to Z of Medicinal Drugs. New York: Oxford UP, 2010. Print.

Maxwell, Jane Carlisle, and Beth A. Rutkowski. “The Prevalence of Amphetamine and Methamphetamine Abuse in North America: A Review of the Indicators, 1992–2007.” Drug and Alcohol Review 27.3 (2008): 229–35. Print.

What is hemolytic disease of the newborn?

Causes and Symptoms

Hemolytic disease of the newborn is a disorder in which maternal antibodies induce hemolysis of the red blood cells of the fetus or newborn, producing jaundice. The most common causes are ABO or Rh incompatibilities. ABO incompatibility occurs when the mother’s blood is type O and the baby’s blood is either type A or type B. The newborn develops jaundice within the first forty-eight hours of birth as a result of increasing bilirubin levels in the blood. Rh incompatibility can arise when an Rh-negative woman is carrying a second Rh-positive fetus. During the delivery of the first Rh-positive baby, blood from the newborn may pass into the mother’s circulation. If no treatment is given, the woman may develop anti-Rh antibodies, which will remain in her circulation. If the fetus in her next
pregnancy is also Rh-positive, the anti-Rh antibodies will cross over into the baby’s blood, causing hemolysis of the red blood cells. In severe cases, the hemolysis starts in utero and the fetus will develop anemia, progressing to generalized edema with heart failure (hydrops fetalis) and death if the anemia is not corrected.

During the pregnancy, a positive Coombs’ test
indicates that the woman has been exposed and thus sensitized to Rh factor. A woman who is Rh-negative can become sensitized in three ways: by having delivered an Rh-positive baby following a previous pregnancy and not having received the protein Rhogam; by receiving an erroneous infusion of Rh-positive blood; and by having a spontaneous or induced abortion of an Rh-positive embryo or fetus. A rising concentration of antibodies during the course of the pregnancy indicates that hemolysis is occurring in the fetus. A small amount of amniotic fluid is obtained through a needle inserted through the mother’s abdomen to determine the severity of the disease in the fetus. At birth, the baby may have pale skin and an enlarged liver and spleen. Progressive jaundice and anemia develop within the first twenty-four hours. High levels may cause the bilirubin to enter
the brain and produce kernicterus. The baby with kernicterus shows little activity (hypoactivity), refuses to suck milk, and experiences seizures that can progress to permanent neurologic damage or to coma and death. Deafness may be a consequence of high bilirubin levels during the newborn period.

Treatment and Therapy

There is no preventive treatment for ABO incompatibility. Phototherapy, or light therapy, is used to decrease the level of bilirubin. Phototherapy acts on the bilirubin deposited in the skin and makes it water soluble, so that the pigment can be excreted through the gastrointestinal tract. An exchange transfusion may be required to decrease the concentration of bilirubin if it rises to dangerous levels. These levels will depend on the baby’s maturation and clinical condition.

Preventive treatment for Rh incompatibility consists of giving Rhogam to all Rh-negative pregnant women at twenty-eight weeks of gestation and within the first seventy-two hours after the delivery of an Rh-positive baby. All Rh-negative women who have experienced an abortion or who have erroneously received a transfusion of Rh-positive blood should also receive Rhogam.

An Rh-negative pregnant woman with a positive Coombs’ test needs to have periodic Coombs titers, or antibody concentration measurements, to determine what type of intervention, if any, is required. This test should first be done between sixteen and eighteen weeks of gestation. Rising Coombs titers indicate that hemolysis is occurring in the fetus. Prenatal interventions may include correcting fetal anemia by giving red blood cells directly to the fetus, either into the abdomen or into the umbilical vein. The fetus must be observed with sonography for the development of fetal edema, an ominous sign. At birth, the baby may have severe anemia requiring immediate correction. Phototherapy and an exchange transfusion may be needed if bilirubin rises above acceptable levels. Other modes of therapy, such as phenobarbital, agar gel, and rectal suppositories, are of limited value in reducing bilirubin in infants with hemolytic disease.

Before discharge from the hospital nursery, a hearing test must be done for all infants who have had jaundice during the neonatal period. Anemia may develop during the first six weeks of life as a result of the persistence of antibodies in the baby’s blood. Close follow-up of hemoglobin levels must be done after discharge from the hospital. Blood transfusions may be indicated, as well as iron and folic acid supplementation.

Perspective and Prospects

The incidence of Rh incompatibility has decreased remarkably since the advent of Rhogam. Nevertheless, it still occurs, particularly when unidentified miscarriages have occurred. Rh-negative fetuses can be identified early using special techniques available only in large medical centers. Therapy for hydrops fetalis has improved with the use of cordocentesis. This therapy, which consists of obtaining and transfusing blood directly into the umbilical cord while the fetus is in utero, is available in specialized medical centers and has helped many sensitized babies to survive. Immunoglobulin has been used to block hemolysis, but it cannot be used for treatment. Agents that can metabolize bilirubin are currently under investigation.

Bibliography

Behrman, Richard E., Robert M. Kliegman, and Hal B. Jenson, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 19th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2011.

"Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn." MedlinePlus, November 14, 2011.

"Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn." University of Iowa Hospitals & Clinics, November 14, 2011.

Kemper, Kathi J. The Holistic Pediatrician: A Pediatrician’s Comprehensive Guide to Safe and Effective Therapies for the Twenty-five Most Common Ailments of Infants, Children, and Adolescents. Rev. ed. New York: Quill, 2002.

Levy, Joseph. “Newborn Jaundice.” Parents Magazine 69, no. 7 (July, 1994): 59–60.

Martin, Richard J., Avroy A. Fanaroff, and Michele C. Walsh, eds. Fanaroff and Martin’s Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine: Diseases of the Fetus and Infant. 2 vols. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby/Elsevier, 2010.

Nathanson, Laura Walther. The Portable Pediatrician: A Practicing Pediatrician’s Guide to Your Child’s Growth, Development, Health, and Behavior from Birth to Age Five. 2d ed. New York: HarperCollins, 2002.

"Rh Incompatibility." MedlinePlus, January 28, 2013.

Summarize Chapter 4 of the novel The Outsiders.

Chapter 4 begins with Johnny and Ponyboy hanging out in a park at 2:30 a.m. A blue Mustang begins to circle the park, and Johnny wonders if the Socs are looking for them because they picked up Cherry and Marcia earlier. Five Socs step out of the Mustang and begin walking towards Johnny and Ponyboy. The boys do not run, and Johnny puts his hand in his back pocket where he keeps his switchblade. Ponyboy recognizes Randy and Bob as they approach them. The Socs and Greasers exchange words and Ponyboy spits at them after he says, Socs are simply white trash with Mustangs and madras. Bob tells another Soc named David to give Ponyboy a bath, and David grabs Pony and tries to drown him in the fountain. Ponyboy struggles and feels like he's going to drown. Ponyboy passes out and wakes up soaking wet. He notices Johnny sitting next to him, and Johnny says that he killed the boy who tried to drown Pony. Johnny tells Pony that the rest of the Socs ran away. Johnny says to Ponyboy that they'll need to get money, a gun, and have a plan because the police will be looking for them. They decide to ask Dally for help, and go to Buck Merril's house to find him. Johnny and Ponyboy explain what happened to Dally, and Dally gives them a gun and some money. After Dally gives Pony a sweater and a leather jacket, he tells them to hop a train to Windrixville. He tells them about an old abandoned church on the top of Jay Mountain, which is a good hideout. The boys take Dally's advice and hop the train to Windrixville. When they arrive, Ponyboy asks a farmer who is driving a tractor for directions to Jay Mountain. The farmer tells them how to get to there, and the boys walk forty-five minutes to their destination. Johnny and Ponyboy arrive at the abandoned church and enter. Both of the boys end up falling asleep on the floor of the abandoned church.

What is the herpes simplex virus?

Risk factors: Sexually active adolescents and adults are at risk of infection with HSV2. People with weakened immune systems, such as cancer patients, are at an increased risk of recurring HSV infection and disease.

Etiology and the disease process: Once a person is infected, the virus spreads to the nerve cells and remains in the body (in a latent form) for life.

The lesions in the genital area first look like red bumps but then turn into watery blisters that may open up, ooze fluid, or bleed. The lesions usually heal in seven to ten days but may take up to four weeks to heal. The lesions may reappear every now and then, usually after periods of stress, fever, or overexposure to sunlight.

Cancer, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and the use of medications (corticosteroids) that weaken the immune system may also trigger the reappearance of symptoms.

Some studies have suggested that women infected with both herpes simplex virus and a high-risk type of human papillomavirus (HPV) have a greater likelihood of developing cervical cancer than women who have only the HPV infection. However, HSV infection need not be present for cervical cancer to develop.

Incidence: Infections with herpes simplex virus are ubiquitous and are transmitted from person to person whether or not they have symptoms. Most children will acquire an HSV1 infection during their first few years of life, usually through contact with infected saliva. In the United States, 53.9 percent of Americans aged fourteen to forty-nine had antibodies to HSV1 and 15.7 percent had antibodies to HSV2 between 2005 and 2010, as reported by H. Bradley et al. in 2013.

Symptoms: HSV infections in children beyond the neonatal (newborn) period, adolescents, and adults usually have no symptoms. HSV1 may cause fever (especially during the first episode), mouth sores (fever blisters), and enlarged lymph nodes in the neck or groin. HSV2 may cause genital lesions with a burning and tingling sensation, muscle pain, vaginal discharge, and trouble urinating.

Screening and diagnosis: HSV infections can be diagnosed by the physical appearance of the skin lesions. There are, however, laboratory tests available to diagnose herpes simplex virus infections, including blood and cell culture tests. Other available tests include the following:

• Tzanck test: The sore on the skin is scraped and the sample stained for examination under a microscope.





• Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) test: This uses a fluorescent antibody to detect the presence of the virus.

Treatment and therapy: Mild cases of the disease may not require treatment. For more severe cases, two types of therapies are usually recommended episodic and suppressive. The episodic therapy consists of taking medication at the first sign of recurrence to accelerate the healing process of the lesions. The medication is taken for a few days until the lesions disappear. Suppressive therapy consists of taking a medication daily to eliminate or reduce recurrence. Suppressive therapy is usually recommended for people who have six or more recurrences per year.

Cancer patients with severe cases and frequent infections may be treated with antiviral drugs, such as acyclovir (Zovirax), famciclovir (Famvir), and valacyclovir (Valtrex). Acyclovir is available in ointment and pill forms. Valacyclovir uses acyclovir as its active ingredient but is adsorbed better by the body than acyclovir, thus requiring fewer daily doses. Famciclovir stops the virus from replicating, using the active ingredient penciclovir. Like valacyclovir, it is well absorbed by the body.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: Herpes has no cure. Recurrences, however, may be milder over time. HSV skin lesions usually heal on their own in seven to ten days, but they may take longer to heal in people with weakened immune systems. People with genital herpes may feel ashamed or guilty and may think that they can no longer have sex; however, herpes can be treated and transmission can be prevented. Genital HSV infection may be prevented by the use of condoms and by reducing the number of sexual partners. Condoms, however, do not always cover the whole infected area and infection may occur.

There is no licensed vaccine against herpes simplex virus, but several candidate vaccines have been studied.

American Academy of Pediatrics. “Varicella-Zoster Infections.” Red Book: 2012 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Ed. L. K. Pickering, C. J. Baker, D. W. Kimberlin, and S. S. Long. 29th ed. Elk Grove Village: AAP, 2012. Web. 13 Oct. 2014.

Bradley, H., et al. "Seroprevalence of Herpes Simplex Virus Types 1 and 2—United States, 1999–2010." Journal of Infectious Diseases 209.3 (2013): 325–33. Web. 14 Oct. 2014.

"Cervical Cancer Prevention." Cancer.gov. Natl. Cancer Inst., Natl. Inst. of Health, 27 Feb. 2014. Web. 14 Oct. 2014.

Ebel, Charles. Managing Herpes: How to Live and Love with a Chronic STD. Rev. ed. Research Triangle Park: American Social Health Assn., 2002. Print.

"Herpes Simplex." American Academy of Dermatology. Amer. Acad. of Dermatology, 2014. Web. 14 Oct. 2014.

"Infections in People with Cancer." Cancer.org. Amer. Cancer Soc., 6 Nov. 2013. Web. 14 Oct. 2014.

Stanberry, Lawrence. Understanding Herpes. 2nd ed. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 2006. Print.

How did the Jim Crow laws influence people's views of minorities?

Jim Crow laws affected how people viewed minorities, especially African-Americans. The Jim Crow laws were aimed at segregating the races. They were designed to keep African-Americans and whites apart.

As a result of the Jim Crow laws, segregation existed in many public places throughout the South. For example, schools were segregated, modes of transportation were segregated, and drinking fountains and bathrooms were segregated. These laws perpetuated the belief of white superiority. The facilities that were set aside for African-Americans were usually inferior to the same facilities for whites. Many white southerners believed the African-Americans were inferior and deserved to have inferior facilities than the whites had. These laws also fueled white supremacy groups like the Ku Klux Klan. They believed they were protecting the white race. These groups believed their actions toward African-Americans were justified.

The Jim Crow laws perpetuated the negative feelings and negative attitudes that many southerners had about African-Americans.

In "A Jury of Her Peers," why don't the women tell the men what they've found out?

Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters each have a personal reason for not turning over the evidence to the attorney and sheriff, and they have one reason that they share. Once the women discover the bent bird cage and the strangled bird, they no longer entertain any doubts that Mrs. Wright killed her husband. However, Mrs. Hale, rather than blaming the former Minnie Foster for her actions, blames herself for her own role in the situation. She recriminates herself, saying she should have visited Minnie at her home and should have picked up on the isolated and soul-killing atmosphere Mr. Wright forced on his wife. When the awfulness of Mrs. Wright's lonely and oppressed existence fully dawns on Mrs. Hale, she cries out, "Oh, I wish I'd come over here once in a while! ... That was a crime! Who's going to punish that?"

Mrs. Peters gains insight into Mrs. Wright, a woman she didn't know previously, by contemplating what it would have been like to have been childless, enjoy the pleasure of a song bird for a while, and then have the bird brutally killed. Mrs. Peters recalls a bully having killed her cat with a hatchet when she was little. She says, "If they hadn't held me back I would have ... hurt him." She also thinks about how still her house was after she lost her oldest child. Both these situations allow Mrs. Peters to empathize with Mrs. Wright.

Though each woman has a personal reason for sympathizing with Mrs. Wright, those reasons alone may not have been enough for them to withhold the evidence from the men. Ironically, however, the men's own condescension towards Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters gives them the additional motivation they need to keep their findings secret. Throughout the story the men, especially the county attorney and the sheriff, mock and belittle the two women and all of their gender. They criticize Mrs. Wright's housekeeping, they scoff at the women's concern for "trifles," patronize "the ladies," and repeatedly laugh about the women's interest in whether Mrs. Wright planned to knot or quilt the squares. The women bear with those remarks; certainly, they hear them on a regular basis and barely bother letting such remarks offend them. Nevertheless, they know that when Mrs. Wright comes to trial, it will not be before a jury of her peers because women did not serve on juries then. Twelve men with the same lack of empathy and the same condescension for women will determine Mrs. Wright's fate. No doubt Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale do not think that Mrs. Wright was fully justified in her actions. Yet they know that she will be at the mercy of the mocking county attorney: "Mr. Henderson is awful sarcastic in a speech, and he's going to make fun of her" Mrs. Peters notes early in the story.

Because they know Mrs. Wright will not receive a trial that will take into consideration all the backstory that the women have reconstructed, they can't bring themselves to subject her to more unfair treatment at the hands of the law. Therefore they decide to act as a jury of her peers, doing what they can to assure that she gets a lighter sentence or no sentence at all. 

What is the Rosenhan experiment?

Introduction

In a powerful and illuminating study of the validity of psychiatric diagnoses, David L. Rosenhan of Stanford University persuaded eight people who had no history of psychiatric illness to present themselves at various mental hospitals in five states on the East and West Coasts. Each of these imposters, or pseudopatients, falsely reported a single psychiatric symptom: vague auditory hallucinations. For example, imposters stated that they occasionally heard the words “thud,” “empty,” and “hollow.” Aside from lying about the occasional voices, everything else these imposters said and did was honest, including the responses they gave during extensive admission interviews and large batteries of tests. Rosenhan wanted to see how long it would take for the hospital staff to recognize the normality of the imposters.

Hospital staff never did. On the basis of the one complaint alone, all eight people were admitted to twelve different hospitals (some did it twice) and kept there from seven to fifty-two days. Their average length of stay was nineteen days, despite the fact that after they were admitted, each person responded honestly to questions about significant life events, said that they no longer heard voices, and attempted to interact normally with staff members. Indeed, the imposters had a hard time convincing the staff that they were well and no longer needed to be hospitalized.

On the basis of the behavior that they observed, hospital personnel diagnosed each person as severely abnormal. Most diagnoses were schizophrenia, which is a severe disorder. Even when they were discharged, most of these imposters left with the label “schizophrenia—in remission.” Labeling had a powerful, long-lasting effect.

Although the hospital staff never detected any of the imposters, many of the other inpatients did. Patients came forward and said something like, “You’re not crazy. You’re a journalist or a professor checking up on the hospital.” In part, patients figured out the ruse because the imposters openly kept notes about their experiences on the psychiatric ward.

These notes, a typical aspect of participant-observation research, provided much information about the daily activities on a psychiatric ward. These imposters noted that the hospital staff spent surprisingly little time interacting with patients, an average of only 6.8 minutes per day. Mostly, staff members segregated themselves from patients in a glassed-off enclosure, where they could observe but did not have to respond to patients. When staff did interact with patients, treatment was often depersonalizing, including avoiding patients and ignoring their questions. Staff often behaved in an authoritarian manner, and the imposters grew to feel powerless, invisible, and bored. Hospital staff interpreted every behavior as a symptom of a mental disorder. For example, note taking was seen as a sign of obsession, and pacing the corridor out of boredom was viewed as a sign of nervousness. Further, these imposters noted the largely normal quality of the real patients’ behavior, concluding that people with genuine mental illness act normally most of the time.

In a follow-up experiment, Rosenhan alerted hospital staff to the possibility that people who presented for admission were imposters. In this follow-up study, staff judged about 10 to 20 percent of new admissions to be faking. However, none of those identified was actually an experimental imposter.

Long-Term Implications

In Rosenhan’s study, the label “schizophrenic” distorted how hospital staff viewed each of the imposters on the ward. Rosenhan concluded that hospitals impose a special environment in which mental health professionals can easily misunderstand the meanings of behavior. Attitudes can bias how people view others’ behavior.

The results illustrate several important points. One, labels have a powerful influence on the way mental health workers perceive and interpret actions. Two, the mental health system is biased toward seeing pathology in anyone who walks in the door. Three, determining who is psychologically disordered is not always clear. Four, psychiatric diagnoses have questionable validity.

Rosenhan’s controversial study stimulated a lot of critical discussion and examination of psychiatric institutions. Rosenhan actually proposed that psychiatrists and other mental health professionals stop diagnosing personality and instead label specific behaviors. The mental health field did not make this step, but psychiatry moved to improve the reliability of diagnoses in subsequent editions of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM), the fifth edition of which was published by the American Psychiatric Association in 2013. According to the DSM-5, most psychiatric disorders can be diagnosed only if the symptoms occur over a long period of time and interfere significantly with the patient's life, which, if the standards were correctly applied, would rule out Rosenhan's pseudopatients.

The study was also used at the time as a basis for suggestions of reforms of inpatient psychiatric care facilities, though that was not Rosenhan’s aim in conducting the study. In the twenty-first century, the Rosenhan experiment has inspired a number of studies involving pseudopatients—or, as they are sometimes called, “mystery shoppers”—intended to evaluate the quality of patient life and care in various facilities, rather than to evaluate the validity of psychiatric diagnoses in general.

Rosenhan’s original experiment is often listed as one of the classic psychology experiments of the twentieth century. The original article, “On Being Sane in Insane Places,” which was published in the journal Science in 1973, has been reprinted in books listing key readings in psychology, introductory readings in sociology, and examples of participant-observation in qualitative health research. The extensive discussion of this study in other fields such as social work and law reflects tremendous breadth across disciplines.

Bibliography

Crown, Sidney. “’On Being Sane in Insane Places’: A Comment from England.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 84.5 (Oct. 1975): 453–55. Print.

Goddard, Murray J. “Personal Accounts: On Being Possibly Sane in Possibly Insane Places.” Psychiatric Services 62.8 (2011): 831–32. Print.

Lazarus, Arthur. “Improving Psychiatric Services through Mystery Shopping.” Psychiatric Services 60.7 (2009): 972–73. Print.

Millon, Theodore. “Reflections on Rosenhan’s ’On Being Sane in Insane Places.’” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 84.5 (Oct. 1975): 456–61. Print.

Polak, Paul R., et al. “On Treating the Insane in Sane Places.” Journal of Community Psychology 5.4 (Oct. 1977): 380–87. Print.

Rhodes, Karin. “Taking the Mystery out of ’Mystery Shopper’ Studies.” New England Journal of Medicine 365.6 (2011): 484–86. Print.

Rosenhan, David L. “On Being Sane in Insane Places.” Science 179 (Jan. 1973): 250–58. Print.

Slater, Lauren. Opening Skinner’s Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century. New York: Norton, 2004. Print.

What is kidney cancer?

Risk factors: The most common risk factor for kidney cancer is smoking cigarettes. Kidney cancer also appears to be more common in persons who are obese or who have high blood pressure. There are three hereditary syndromes that put a person at a higher risk of developing kidney cancer: von Hippel–Lindau disease, hereditary leiomyomatosis, and Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome. These syndromes may be caused by spontaneous mutations. Some occupations put a person at higher risk for developing kidney cancer. These include occupations in which a person is exposed to certain toxic chemicals or substances, such as petroleum-based products, asbestos, lead, or cadmium. Also, persons who are on long-term dialysis therapy for kidney failure are at higher risk of developing kidney cancer.

Etiology and the disease process: Kidney cancer arises from a single cell that grows wildly. For renal-cell cancer, this is a cell of the tubular epithelium of the nephron, the part of the kidney that filters waste products from the blood and produces urine for excreting these wastes. Transitional-cell renal cancer manifests itself in the renal pelvis, where urine is delivered by the nephrons. The types of renal cancer vary in their aggressiveness and in how quickly they metastasize. Some will metastasize from a small tumor in the kidney, and other types do not metastasize until they have engulfed the kidney. Kidney cancer spreads through the lymph nodes and the bloodstream. Common sites for metastases are the other kidney, the lung, the adrenal gland, the bones, and the liver.

Incidence: There were approximately 63,920 new cases of kidney cancer diagnosed in the United States in 2014. It is twice as common in men as in women. However, kidney cancer is actually relatively rare compared with other cancers, representing about 3.8 percent of all new cases of cancer in the United States. About 13,860 Americans died of kidney cancer in 2014.

Symptoms: The symptoms of kidney cancer do not appear until the tumor is fairly large or has metastasized. The symptoms are blood in the urine (hematuria), abdominal mass, back or flank pain, weight loss, recurrent fever, and fatigue. Blood tests may demonstrate a high serum calcium and either anemia or high red blood cell counts. A urine analysis test may show microscopic hematuria that is not visible to the eye. Kidney cancer can also cause hypertension, although this symptom is not particularly helpful in diagnosing kidney cancer because it is so common.

Screening and diagnosis: There is no routine screening performed for kidney cancer. However, kidney cancer may be found incidentally on a chest, abdominal, or pelvic ultrasound; computed tomography (CT) scan; or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) performed for another reason.

Kidney cancer is usually diagnosed by a renal ultrasound, an abdominal CT scan, an MRI, or a positron emission tomography (PET) scan. Occasionally, an intravenous pyelogram (IVP) is performed, although this diagnostic test has largely been replaced by ultrasounds, CT scans, and MRIs. Once a kidney tumor is discovered, it needs to be biopsied to identify the type of cells in the tumor. Kidney cancers may be biopsied by fine needle through the skin below the rib cage on the back or by ureteroscopy (the passing of a ureteroscope through the urethra, the bladder, one of the ureters, and the renal pelvis, and then into the body of the kidney). Both procedures require fluoroscopy to localize the tumor.

Kidney cancer is usually staged with a combination of the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM staging system and a numeric grouping. “T” refers to the size of the tumor, “N” refers to lymph node involvement, and “M” refers to whether there are metastases. The stages are as follows:

• Stage I, T1a-T1b, N0, M0: The tumor is less than 7 centimeters (cm) with no lymph node involvement and no metastases.





• Stage II, T2, N0, M0: The tumor is greater than 7 cm with no spread outside the kidney.





• Stage III, T1a-T3b, N1, M0 or T3a-3c, N0, M0: The tumor has spread to a single lymph node but not metastasized, or has spread to adjacent tissue or structures, such as the adrenal glands, to fatty tissue around the kidney, or into the vena cava.





• Stage IV, T4, N0-N1, M0; any T, N2, M0; or any T, any N, M1: The tumor extends beyond the kidney locally and has spread into the lymph system. It is present in more than one lymph node. There may also be metastases to other organs.

Treatment and therapy: For many years, the only treatment for kidney cancer was to surgically remove the affected kidney (nephrectomy). This was done unless the cancer was so far advanced that there was little hope for the patient. Kidney cancer did not respond well to either radiation therapy or chemotherapy. Consequently, these treatments were used only to treat metastatic kidney cancer, to relieve the symptoms, and to prolong the patient’s life. However, in the mid-2000s, more treatment options for kidney cancer were discovered, and further research is ongoing.

Kidney-cancer surgeries include total radical nephrectomy, laparoscopic radical nephrectomy, partial nephrectomy, radiofrequency ablation (destroying the tumor with high-energy radio waves), cryoablation (freezing), and arterial embolization (blocking the artery feeding the tumor with material). The original total radical nephrectomy procedure, in which an eighteen-inch incision is made from below the mediastinum (breast bone) to the middle of the back, is no longer the sole surgical option. Several laparoscopic
radical nephrectomy procedures are available. These laparoscopic procedures require a 3- to 4-inch incision and 3.5-inch incisions. Recovery time for the patient is four weeks rather than the twelve weeks of recovery required for the original procedure.

Kidney cancer still does not respond well to radiation therapy. Advances in the development of chemotherapy drugs have benefited the treatment of kidney cancer. However, it is still not routine to prevent the recurrence of a kidney cancer with chemotherapy, as is done with other cancers. The focus of chemotherapy treatment for kidney cancer is to prolong the life of the patient. As a result, chemotherapy is reserved for treating advanced renal cancers with metastases. Kidney cancer may be treated with angiogenesis inhibitors (drugs that inhibit the growth of blood vessels feeding the tumors), such as sorafenib tosylate (Nexavar) and sunitinib malate (Sutent).

Other drugs now being used to treat advanced kidney cancer are bevacizumab (Avastin), interleukin-2, and interferon. Bevacizumab is a monoclonal antibody that interferes with the growth and development of new blood vessels within a tumor. Interleukin-2 and interferon are referred to as biological therapy, because these substances are normally produced by the body in small amounts. Their role in kidney cancer treatment is to stimulate the body’s normal immune defenses. Like other chemotherapy drugs, these drugs have many severe side effects.

In May 2007, the drug temsirolimus (Torisel) was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treating kidney cancer. Temsirolimus is an enzyme inhibitor that interferes with cell growth, development, and survival. The FDA also approved pazopanib hydrochloride (Votrient) and everolimus (Afinitor) in 2009 and axitinib (Inlyta) in 2012. Pazopanib hydrochloride and axitinib are tyrosine kinase inhibitors, and everolimus is a mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: With kidney cancer, the prognosis depends on the stage of the cancer at diagnosis. In stages I and II, surgical intervention is likely to remove the cancer, and five-year survival rates are approximately 81 percent and 74 percent, respectively. In stages III and IV, the prognosis is guarded and depends on the patient’s response to treatments, particularly drug therapy; survival rates are approximately 53 percent in stage III and 8 percent in stage IV. Treatment in these stages may be aimed at extending the patient’s life and providing a reasonable quality of life.

It is not possible to prevent kidney cancer. Certainly, not smoking cigarettes will decrease a person’s likelihood of developing kidney cancer. Other lifestyle choices, such as occupation, might also decrease the likelihood of developing kidney cancer, but many of the substances thought to cause kidney cancer are fairly pervasive in the environment. Some kidney cancers develop in people with no apparent risk factors for the disease.

Bickerstaff, Linda. Kidney Cancer: Current and Emerging Trends in Detection and Treatment. New York: Rosen, 2012. Print.

Bukowski, Ronald M., Robert A. Figlin, and Robert J. Motzer, eds. Renal Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Targets and Clinical Applications. 3rd ed. New York: Springer, 2015. Print.

Campbell, Steven C., and Brian I. Rini, eds. Renal Cell Carcinoma: Clinical Management. New York: Humana, 2013. Print.

Diaz, José I., Linda B. Mora, and Ardeshir Hakam. “The Mainz Classification of Renal Cell Tumors.” Cancer Control: Journal of the Moffitt Cancer Center 6.6 (1999): 571–79. Print.

"Kidney Cancer (Adult): Renal Cell Carcinoma." American Cancer Society. Amer. Cancer Soc., 13 Jan. 2015. Web. 22 Jan. 2015.

Lara, Primo N., Jr., and Eric Jonasch, eds. Kidney Cancer: Principles and Practice. Berlin: Springer, 2012. Print.

Magee, Colm, and Lynn Redahan. "The Kidney in Cancers." National Kidney Foundation's Primer on Kidney Diseases. Ed. Scott J. Gilbert et al. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2014. 277–85. Print.

Nuñez, Kelvin R., ed. Trends in Kidney Cancer Research. New York: Nova, 2006. Print.

Patel, Uday, ed. Carcinoma of the Kidney. New York: Cambridge UP, 2008. Print.

Rodriguez, Alejandro, and Wade J. Sexton. “Management of Locally Advanced Renal Cell Carcinoma.” Cancer Control: Journal of the Moffitt Cancer Center 13.3 (2006): 199–210. Print.

Tannir, Nizar M., ed. Renal Cell Carcinoma. New York: Oxford UP, 2014. Print.

The narrator mentions a “crazy streak” running in his family. Which two characters show this streak in their behavior and words?

In "The Summer of the Beautiful White Horse," there are two characters which demonstrate a "crazy streak" in the Garoghlanian family. The first of these is Uncle Khosrove who greets every event, no matter how serious, with the same reaction:

"It is no harm; pay no attention to it."

Even when his house burns down, Khosrove repeats this catchphrase, much to the dismay of his barber and his son. Similarly, when John Byro complains to him about the loss of his white horse, Khosrove simply tells him to stop "crying" over it. 

Mourad is another character who demonstrates the family's "crazy streak." He not only shows this by stealing the horse but also by claiming to Aram that he has an "understanding" with the horse. Mourad also sings loudly when riding the horse which Aram interprets as further evidence that he has inherited the family's "crazy streak."

In Animal Farm, why did Napoleon seem to feel threatened by Boxer's death?

In Chapter Nine of Animal Farm, Boxer injures himself while collecting stone for the completion of the windmill. When word of this accident reaches Napoleon, he has Squealer, his propagandist, tell the animals that he is arranging for Boxer to be treated by a local vet. But the truth is quite the opposite: Napoleon sells Boxer to a horse slaughterer and pockets the money for himself and the other pigs.

When the van comes to collect Boxer, the other animals gather to say goodbye and quickly realise what Napoleon has done. This is a dangerous moment for Napoleon which threatens his position as leader, because every animal on the farm loves Boxer and they are horrified to learn that he has been sent to "the knackers." Napoleon's reaction demonstrates his sense of fear. Through Squealer, he lies to the animals by saying that the vet has recently bought the horse slaughterer's van and has not had time to paint over its sign. Squealer also claims to have been at Boxer's bedside at the time of his death and that his last words were: "Long live Comrade Napoleon! Napoleon is always right." This sounds like something that Boxer may have said, as one of the most loyal and dedicated animals on the farm, and so the others believe Napoleon and Squealer's lies. 

This acceptance of lies removes the threat to Napoleon's leadership. But when the other animals see the pigs drinking whiskey, rumours begin to circulate about where Napoleon got the money from. This episode, then, marks the beginning of the animals' realisation about Napoleon, specifically his tyrannical nature and his plans for the future of Animal Farm. 

How effective is the performance of the American criminal justice system in the enforcement of the constitutional safeguards in the 4th, 5th,...

Determining the efficacy of the American criminal justice system in upholding and protecting the rights guaranteed under the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Eighth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution is problematic for a variety of reasons, not the least of which is that the notion of a singular American criminal justice system is untenable. What we think of as the American criminal justice system is actually many different criminal justice systems, from federal to local, that all work under the same minimum guarantees of rights but that do not necessarily all operate under the same interpretations and enforcement methodologies. Additionally, some of these different systems may have created enhanced minimums that offer more protections than those found under the above mentioned amendments to the U.S. Constitution. A further complication is that the conceptualization of any criminal justice system as a singular system masks the complexity that each individual criminal justice system is actually several systems that operate under different goals and authority to protect society via the enforcement of criminal laws and the punishments imposed for breaking those laws.

The protections guaranteed under the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Eighth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution apply to the actions of the federal government. Through the Fourteenth Amendment, these protections have been extended to apply to all government actors in the United States, including state, territorial, and local governments. These protections, and the line of court cases interpreting them, create a minimum level to which all government actors must adhere when seeking to investigate, prosecute, and punish violations of the criminal law. What these minimum protections do not do, however, is create a singular American justice system. Rather, they are the principles that inform the variety of criminal justice systems that operate in the states, territories, protectorates, etc. of the United States.

The individual states may have greater protections built into their own constitutions and/or statutes. Further, individual city/town charters and ordinances may also have enhanced protections. So, not only do these different entities of government have their own criminal justice systems, these systems must adhere to not only the minimum protections of the U.S. Constitution, they must follow any enhanced protections that may exists within their own direct hierarchy. Furthermore, these different systems may include differing interpretations as to how particular situations fall under the protections offered in that system, as well as differing means of enforcing the applicable protections. That the U.S. Constitution and federal court decisions give these systems a common baseline for what is protected and for the implementation of those protections does not create a single criminal justice system – it creates the principles to which the individual criminal justice systems must minimally adhere

To further complicate matters, each criminal justice system is not itself a singular system. Each one is several systems that have different responsibilities and powers, some of which are not necessarily in concert with other related systems. Law enforcement, prosecution, the judicial system, and the correction system are all part of a given criminal justice system, but they do not operate as a single, unified system. Each one plays a vital role in protecting the interests of society against malfeasance, the purpose of the criminal law, while also protecting the accused, at least to the minimum level guaranteed under the U.S. Constitution; however, each of these has their own goals and authority.  Additionally, in any given criminal justice system, the different systems within it may not share interpretations of how and when the minimum protections will apply, or even the extent of the protections themselves, in that particular criminal justice system.  

The sheer complexity of what we might call the American criminal justice system makes determination of the efficacy of the protections found under Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Eighth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution a difficult task. Some individual criminal justice systems may do well protecting the federally guaranteed minimums, as well as having enhanced protections that are in place, while others may have problems in applying the minimum protections under the U.S. Constitution. And some individual systems may have issues with law enforcement pushing or even circumventing the boundaries of the protections while others may have a judicial system that interprets the protections differently from how they are interpreted in other systems.

Because these systems are not integrated into a singular American criminal justice system, the attempt to determine the overall efficacy of the variety of criminal justice systems in America in following the protections guaranteed by the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Eighth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution becomes problematic. The failures, or even the successes, of any one system should not be imputed to all systems operating under the same guiding principles.

What is green tea? What are its health effects?

Overview

People have been drinking tea for thousands of years, and more recently a number of potential health benefits have been attributed to this ancient beverage. Black tea and green tea are made from the same plant, but a higher level of the original substances endure in the less-processed green form.

Uses and Applications

Green tea contains high levels of substances called catechin polyphenols, known
to possess strong antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antitumorigenic, and even
antibiotic properties. Based on these findings and on observational studies, green
tea has become popular as a daily drink for preventing cancer and heart disease.
However, some observational trials failed to find indications of benefit with
green tea. Furthermore, only double-blind, placebo-controlled
studies can prove a treatment effective, and there is little
direct evidence of this type of study regarding green tea and cancer or heart
disease prevention.

One such study found that green teas produced short-term improvements in cholesterol profile, with the benefits disappearing after four weeks. More positive results were seen in a study that evaluated a form of green tea enriched with the substance theaflavin, which is found in black tea. In this fairly large (more than two hundred participants), three-month study, the use of the tea product resulted in significant, ongoing reductions in LDL (bad) cholesterol compared with placebo. A green tea extract enhanced with catechins has also shown promise for reducing LDL levels, according to one somewhat flawed double-blind study. However, a study involving catechin-enhanced green tea in Japanese children was less convincing.

Preliminary studies suggest that certain green tea polyphenols may help prevent skin cancer if they are applied directly to the skin. In addition, there is some evidence that green tea constituents might help protect the skin from sun damage. Unlike normal sunscreen preparations, green tea does not physically block ultraviolet light. Rather, it seems to protect cells from some of the damage caused by ultraviolet light. Because it works by such a different mechanism of action, green tea might offer synergistic benefits if combined with standard sunscreens. However, in an eight-week double-blind, placebo-controlled study of forty women who already had symptoms of aging skin, the combined use of oral green tea and a topical green tea cream failed to prove more effective than placebo. Some possible benefits were seen in the microscopic evaluation of the skin condition.

Topical green tea extracts have also shown some promise for the treatment of cervical dysplasia, while oral green tea extracts might reduce the risk of prostate cancer, according to a small pilot study. Combining the results of thirteen observational studies, researchers found conflicting evidence for green tea’s effect on the risk of stomach cancer. In a Japanese pilot study, green tea extract supplements lowered the risk of recurrent colorectal polyps. In a review of nine observational studies involving more than 5,600 cases of breast cancer, researchers failed to find reliable evidence for a reduction in the incidence of breast cancer. However, they did find weak evidence for a decrease in breast cancer recurrence among women who consumed more than three cups of green tea daily

On a completely different note, one study tested the effectiveness of gargling
with green tea catechins as a means of preventing influenza. In this double-blind,
placebo-controlled study, 124 residents of a Japanese nursing home gargled with
green tea catechins or placebo for three months. All participants received
standard influenza vaccine. The results showed that residents who gargled with the
tea extract were less likely to develop influenza than those using the placebo. In
addition, another double-blind study found preliminary evidence that oral
consumption of a green tea extract might help prevent colds and flu.

A small double-blind, placebo-controlled trial found weak evidence that green tea chew candy might reduce gum inflammation in persons with periodontal disease (gingivitis). Green tea extract has also shown some promise for treating borderline diabetes. However, one double-blind study failed to find that a combined extract of black and green tea was helpful for controlling blood sugar levels in people with type 2 diabetes. Green tea also has been proposed as a means of preventing liver disease, but the evidence remains unconvincing.

Green tea is sometimes recommended for weight loss on the basis of rather
theoretical evidence that it speeds up metabolism. However, there is little direct
scientific backing for this use. If green tea does increase metabolism, the effect
is extremely small. One study conducted in Thailand reported weight-loss benefits
with green tea, as did a second study of oolong tea enriched with green tea
extracts. However, a Dutch study failed to find green tea helpful for preventing
weight regain after weight loss. In another study, the use of green tea failed to
produce significant weight loss in overweight women with polycystic ovary
syndrome. Green tea extract enriched with catechins has done
somewhat better, enhancing weight loss in one substantial but flawed trial.
However, a study in overweight Japanese children did not support the effectiveness
of green tea catechins for weight reduction. Similar results were obtained in
another placebo-controlled trial involving seventy-eight overweight women after
twelve weeks of treatment.

One preliminary study found some evidence that green tea cream may be helpful
for the skin condition rosacea. The results of another study
weakly hint that green tea extracts taken orally might reduce symptoms of
benign
prostatic hyperplasia. One study found that inhaled tea
catechins could reduce levels of resistant staph carried in the sputum of disabled
elderly persons. One should not, however, attempt to inhale green tea
products.

Dosage

Studies weakly suggest that three cups of green tea daily might provide protection from cancer. However, because not everyone wants to take the time to drink green tea, manufacturers have offered extracts that can be taken in pill form. A typical dosage is 100 milligrams (mg) to 150 mg three times daily of a green tea extract standardized to contain 80 percent total polyphenols and 50 percent epigallocatechin gallate. Whether these extracts offer any benefit remains unknown. Furthermore, there are growing concerns about liver toxicity with the use of green tea extracts. In an analysis performed in 2006, some tested green tea products were found to be contaminated with lead.

Safety Issues

As a widely consumed beverage, green tea is generally regarded as safe. It does
contain caffeine, at perhaps a slightly lower level than black tea,
and can therefore cause insomnia, nervousness, and the other well-known symptoms
of excess caffeine intake.

Green tea extracts, however, may not be safe. There are a growing number of
case reports in which the use of a concentrated green tea extract was associated
with liver inflammation. In most cases, liver problems disappeared after the
extract was discontinued, but in two cases, permanent liver failure ensued,
requiring liver
transplantation. While it is not certain that the green tea
extract caused the liver problems, or how it might do so, these reports do raise
significant concerns about the use of green tea extracts, especially by those with
liver disease or those who are prone to it.

Green tea should not be given to infants and young children. There are theoretical concerns that high dosages of epigallocatechin gallate might be unsafe for pregnant women.

Dried green tea leaf contains significant levels of vitamin K on a per-weight basis. On this basis, it has been stated that people using blood thinners in the warfarin (Coumadin) family should avoid green tea, because vitamin K antagonizes the effect of those drugs. However, green tea taken as a beverage provides such small amounts of the vitamin that the risk seems minimal for normal consumption. There is one case report of problems that developed in a person on warfarin who consumed as much as 1 gallon of green tea daily.

Important interactions. The caffeine in green tea could cause
serious problems in persons who are taking monoamine oxidase
inhibitors. One should avoid drinking large quantities of
green tea if also taking warfarin. Finally, green tea may decrease the absorption
of folic
acid into the bloodstream.

Bibliography

Boehm, K., et al. “Green Tea (Camellia sinensis) for the Prevention of Cancer.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2009): CD005004. Available through EBSCO DynaMed Systematic Literature Surveillance at http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed.

Hsu, C. H., et al. “Effect of Green Tea Extract on Obese Women.” Clinical Nutrition 27 (2008): 363-370.

Katiyar, S. K., N. Ahmad, and H. Mukhtar. “Green Tea and Skin.” Archives of Dermatology 136 (2000): 989-994.

Liu, J., J. Xing, and Y. Fei. “Green Tea (Camellia sinensis) and Cancer Prevention.” Chinese Medicine 3 (2008): 12.

Mackenzie, T., L. Leary, and W. B. Brooks. “The Effect of an Extract of Green and Black Tea on Glucose Control in Adults with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.” Metabolism 56 (2007): 1340-1344.

Matsuyama, T., et al. “Catechin Safely Improved Higher Levels of Fatness, Blood Pressure, and Cholesterol in Children.” Obesity 16 (2008): 1338-1348.

Myung, S. K., et al. “Green Tea Consumption and Risk of Stomach Cancer.” International Journal of Cancer 124 (2009): 670-677.

Ogunleye, A. A., F. Xue, and K. B. Michels. “Green Tea Consumption and Breast Cancer Risk or Recurrence.” Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 119 (2010): 477-484.

Rowe, C. A., et al. “Specific Formulation of Camellia sinensis Prevents Cold and Flu Symptoms and Enhances T Cell Function.” Journal of the American College of Nutrition 26 (2007): 445-452.

Sarma, D. N., et al. “Safety of Green Tea Extracts: A Systematic Review by the U.S. Pharmacopeia.” Drug Safety 31 (2008): 469-484.