I am looking for an analysis of "The Hand That Signed the Paper" by Dylan Thomas.

The hand that signed the paper felled a city;
Five sovereign fingers taxed the breath,
Doubled the globe of dead and halved a country;
These five kings did a king to death.

Stanza One of the poem centers on a powerful 'hand' signing a treaty of sorts. Dylan Thomas, famous for his ambiguity in his poems, is silent on the circumstance that has made this action necessary. The 'five sovereign fingers' responsible for the treaty are like 'five kings'; their power is absolute. With one fell stroke, citizens are 'taxed' to pay for wars, the deaths of innocents are 'doubled' to globe-like proportions, a sovereign king pays with his life, and another country loses half of its citizens.

The mighty hand leads to a sloping shoulder,
The finger joints are cramped with chalk;
A goose's quill has put an end to murder
That put an end to talk.

Stanza Two of the poem tells us that the 'mighty hand' instrumental in the signing of the treaty belongs to a 'sloping shoulder.' What's more, the 'finger joints are cramped with chalk.' This imagery of old age and decrepitude lends special irony to the idea that a 'goose's quill' can 'put an end to murder.' Perhaps, Thomas is implying that copious violence has previously 'put an end to talk,' or peaceful negotiations; this is why the treaty has been deemed necessary. However, the dissonant imagery of arthritic frailty ('The finger joints are crammed with chalk') illustrates a less assuring picture of reality. ('Chalk' possibly refers to calcium crystal deposits which cause extreme joint pain). In this stanza, Thomas utilizes alliteration ('sloping shoulder'; 'cramped with chalk') to emphasize the aura of impending death surrounding the signing of the treaty.

The hand that signed the treaty bred a fever,
And famine grew, and locusts came;
Great is the hand that holds dominion over
Man by a scribbled name.

Stanza Three reveals the true results of the treaty. The harsh conditions of the contract have led to catastrophic sickness ('fever'), 'famine,' and infestations ('locusts'). Thomas utilizes the literary device of enjambment to lend import to the terrible imagery of the 'hand that holds dominion over / Man by a scribbled name.' With the clever use of enjambment, the word 'Man' is capitalized, signifying the far-reaching consequences of a treaty that will affect all of humanity.

The five kings count the dead but do not soften
The crusted wound nor pat the brow;
A hand rules pity as a hand rules heaven;
Hands have no tears to flow.

Stanza Four is an indictment of the hand that 'rules pity as a hand that rules heaven.' Again, the metaphor of 'five kings' represents the five fingers of the hand that signed the treaty. This hand cannot cry ('no tears to flow'), so it cannot have pity on the dead. It also cannot comfort injured soldiers ('the crusted wound') or minimize the anxieties of those who suffer ('pat the brow'). The metaphorical idea of the hand as God ('as a hand rules heaven') lends a starkness to the last stanza: the hand that signed the treaty is a presumptuous hand. Not only has it usurped the place of Providence in human affairs, it also evinces no pity for those it has caused to suffer.

Last, but not least, the clever use of anaphora is significant in the first line of every stanza: 'The hand that signed the paper felled a city; / The mighty hand leads to a sloping shoulder, / The hand that signed the treaty bred a fever, / The five kings count the dead but do not soften.' Thomas situates the anaphoric lines at the head of every stanza instead of juxtaposing them next to each other; this cleverly reveals the significant and pervasive power of the hand.

Hope this helps!

In Chapter 10 of Bette Greene's novel Summer of My German Soldier, why does Patty's father beat her? How does Anton react?

In Bette Greene’s novel Summer of My German Soldier, the story of the relationship between an innocent 12-year-old Jewish girl and the escaped German prisoner-of-war she hides, Patty is a physically- and emotionally-abused child. Her relationship to the young soldier, held, with many other German POWs, in one of a series of such prisons scattered around less-populated areas of the United States, is a reaction to that history of abuse, and to the common humanity she discovers in another human being forced into a world he never imagined and certainly never chose. Chapter 10 of Greene’s novel is titled “A Person of Value.” Anton, of course, has already been revealed as a true humanitarian, unfairly conscripted into the German Army and imbued with a strong sense of liberal values rare in the fascist state that had occupied and terrorized much of Europe while carrying out the most horrific violation of human rights in history, what would come to be known as “the Holocaust.” It is in this chapter that Anton’s presence is exposed following yet another violent encounter between Patty and her abusive father, Harry, and it occurs in the context of yet another display of the same intolerance and prejudice on the part of Harry from which Anton has sought to distance himself with respect to the Nazis. Patty’s friend Freddy, a poor and simple boy whom Harry intensely dislikes, viewing him as an inferior species, has unexpectedly appeared at the Bergen home at an inopportune time.

Patty has been punished before for associating with Freddy, despite the fact that this young boy is one of Patty’s friends in this very Christian community where Jews represent a very tiny minority. The timing is unfortunate because Freddy’s visit coincides with Harry’s arrival at home. When Harry discovers that Freddy is on his property, he flies into a violent rage, shouting at his daughter, “God damn you! . . . You’ll obey me if it kills you.” When Harry begins to beat Patty, using his belt, in the chapter’s closing passage, Anton’s reaction is described as follows:

“Anton, his hands outstretched before him, froze. His face was like I had never seen it, dazed with horror. Then he clapped his hands to his eyes and backward towards the garage.”

In Chapter 11, The Bergen family’s African American housekeeper, Ruth, displays her understanding of Patty’s feelings toward the German soldier: “That man come a-rushing out from the safety of his hiding ‘cause he couldn’t stand your pain and anguish no better’n me. That man listens to the love in his heart.” Patty returns to Anton’s hiding place, where their conversation is forced, both individuals physically uncomfortable with the previous day’s violent events. Anton, observing Patty’s bruises, is curt, explaining to the younger girl that he was disturbed by the beating he witnessed, concerned that is presence may have played a role. While Harry’s brutality and intolerance is ugly and demeaning, however, Anton has spied a different person in Patty’s father. He asks Patty whether she knew where her father went after the violent encounter, and then proceeds to describe what he, the German soldier, observed:

“He [Harry] stood watching the housekeeper help you into the house. Then he came into the garage and talked to himself. Over and over he kept repeating, ‘Nobody loves me. In my whole life nobody has ever loved me.'”

This glimpse into Harry’s soul does not evolve into a lesson on empathy for this cruel father, however. On the contrary, Anton proceeds to draw uncomfortable parallels between Harry and Hitler, stating that “a man who is incapable of humor is capable of cruelty.” The difference between these two men, this perceptive young soldier observes, is one of power, raising the question in Patty’s mind as to whether, under different circumstances, Harry could be as destructive a presence among humanity as is the leader of Nazi Germany. This, then, is how Anton reacts to the beating of Patty at the hands of her father.

What do you think Mullet Fingers is going to do with the cottonmouth snakes Roy caught him with?

When Roy discovers the bag of cottonmouth snakes that Mullet Fingers is keeping in chapter five, readers are as confused as Roy is. This is the first time Roy meets Mullet Fingers, but Roy doesn't get to see him. The strange boy disguises his voice and plops a hood over Roy's head, then ties him to a tree. When he frees him, he requires Roy to count to fifty before turning around, and by that time the mysterious boy has disappeared. 

Mullet Fingers's actions are perplexing. On one hand, he seems nefarious. He won't let Roy see him, he captures Roy for a few minutes, and he keeps poisonous snakes. On the other hand, he could have allowed Roy to be bitten, but he protects him from the snakes. He also painted the snakes' tails with glitter paint, and he doesn't actually harm Roy. 

At this point, readers are probably speculating that the boy intends to harm someone with the snakes, but they don't know who. If readers have connected the running boy with the mischief at the construction site, readers may speculate that the snakes will be released on the property to scare away and possibly harm the workers. 

As it turns out, however, Mullet Fingers takes care to use the snakes only to scare off the guard dogs. He has anticipated that the company will eventually bring in dogs to prevent his tampering with the site. He has painted the snakes' tails to make them more noticeable to people (and perhaps so he can easily catch them again), and before releasing them on the property, he tapes their mouths shut so they cannot harm people or dogs. They will make the dogs freak out, though, and the dog owner will not risk losing an expensive animal to snakebite. 

The way Mullet Fingers uses the snakes demonstrates that he's ingenious, a skillful reptile wrangler, and not really a "bad kid."

In Animal Farm by George Orwell, what could one write about Napoleon lusting for power?

Napoleon has a lust for power so great that he will lie, manipulate, kill and run roughshod over any other animal to get his way. He doesn't care who or what he hurts. What the novel demonstrates is how one person's (or animal's) lust for power can destroy the ideals of a society. It is a cautionary tale, warning readers not to be too naive and trusting of leaders and to challenge and stop a person who is trying to amass power before it is too late.

To pursue this theme, one could write about some of the underhanded ways Napoleon achieves power. How does he do it? How, for example, does he get rid of Snowball? One could also write about key moments where the animals, such as Boxer, could have challenged Napoleon. At one point, Boxer stands up to Napoleon, who is insisting Snowball was a coward during the Battle of the Cowshed. Boxer, who has a great deal of integrity and who the other animals rightly trust, tells Napoleon that Snowball wasn't a coward. Boxer also could have killed one of Napoleon's guard dogs at that moment, reassuring the other animals that Napoleon is not all-powerful, but doesn't do it. How important is it for good people (or animals?) to stand up to and resist evil at crucial moments? Why do Boxer and the other good animals fail to do so?

In Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451, what roles do people play in society?

In Fahrenheit 451, the role of people in society is to maintain censorship and to ensure the destruction of books. This is shown through a comment made by Faber:

Remember that the Captain belongs to the most dangerous enemy of truth and freedom, the solid unmoving cattle of the majority. Oh, God, the terrible tyranny of the majority.

Historically, it was the majority who spurned books and education in favour of entertainment. For them, being happy and care-free was more important than the pursuit of knowledge and, over time, this led to the creation of the firemen system. This provides us with another role played by the people in Montag's society: they work as the firemen who burn books and the homes of those who possess them.

In addition, it is part of the people's role to report others who may be in possession of books. It is Mrs. Bowles and Mrs. Phelps, for instance, who first report Montag's books after he reads the poem, "Dover Beach," to them when they are visiting his home. While Captain Beatty ignores this, Mildred's report forces him to act. As such, we should view the people as the guardians of censorship in Montag's society.

What happens during Holling's reenactment of Julius Caesar's death scene?

The Wednesday Wars has a lot of great moments in it.  But the sequence in question is one of my favorites, because Mrs. Baker is put in an incredibly tight spot, which of course she handles flawlessly.  

The month is March, and Holling has been assigned to read Julius Caesar.  He likes the play a lot, because it has a lot of violence and action.  No "mushy" love stuff like Romeo and Juliet. During class one day, Holling decided to act out Caesar's death to Danny, sound effects included.  Mrs. Baker was on edge, because she knew that she would be observed sometime that week by the school board, so she wasn't happy with Holling showing everybody how violent Shakespeare was.  

"I have not taught you the plays of William Shakespeare for the last five months for you to demean them by acting as though they were all about people stabbing each other."  

Mrs. Baker then takes away his Shakespeare book.  It is at that moment when Mr. Bradbrook from the school board walks into the room.  He immediately asks what book Mrs. Baker is giving to Holling.  Mr. Bradbrook is surprised that a 7th grader would be reading Shakespeare, and he challenges Holling to memorize some lines.  Holling then astonishes Mr. Bradbrook by reciting, from memory, Antony's closing remarks about Brutus from Julius Caesar.  

An hour or two later, during Mrs. Baker's observation, she let Holling and some of the students officially act out the stabbing scene.  Right when Holling yelled out "Then fall, Caesar!" an asbestos tile fell down from the ceiling.  Sycorax and Caliban fell down with the ceiling and landed right in Mrs. Sidman's lap.  Everybody panicked except Mrs. Sidman.  She grabbed the rats by the back of the neck and walked them to a cage in the basement. 

How does the triple bottom line lead to less profits in the long term?

The idea of a triple bottom line, "profits, planet and people", or 3BL, has at its very core the understanding that the traditional bottom line of "profits only" is not enough in a culture that is looking for, or maybe demanding is a better word, more all-around sustainability. In an age of activists and eco-terrorists who are willing to take extreme measures against any who do not think like they do it is imperative that businesses will have to adjust and adapt.

The link below to the paper by John Ikerd, "The Economics of Happiness in Agriculture", reveals in the very title that a drastic shift has taken place in the world of economics.

When resources must be spread out to constantly assess and address the effect of the business on people and the planet, there will never be as much profit as if that were not the case.

The idea as to whether this is a "good" thing or a "bad" thing depends on the side of the debate on which one finds himself or herself.

How would you describe the Reeve in The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer?

The Reeve is one of the characters Chaucer describes in detail during the General Prologue of The Canterbury Tales. Physically, Chaucer says the Reeve is "a slender, choleric man" (1) whose legs are "very lean" (5). As such, we can imagine that the Reeve is generally skinny and slight. More importantly, it seems the Reeve is a capable and skilled professional. "Well could he manage granary and bin" (7), Chaucer says, and "no man ever found him in arrears" (16), which suggests the Reeve is more than able to manage the well-being of his property. Finally, it appears the Reeve is somewhat sensitive as well, as he is personally offended by the Miller's (admittedly offensive) tale, and concocts a story about a cuckolded miller in retaliation. The impression we are left with, then, is a somewhat severe-looking, successful, and moody man, and certainly one of the more serious pilgrims in Chaucer's band.  

What is the "heredity and environment" debate?

Nature vs. Nurture and the Origin of Genetics

Is human behavior controlled by genes or by environmental influences? The “nature vs. nurture” controversy has raged throughout human history, eventually leading to the current antithesis between hereditarianism and environmentalism in biological research. These two schools of thought have shaped a dispute that is at once a difficult scientific problem and a thorny ethical dilemma. Many disciplines, chiefly genetics but also the cognitive sciences, have contributed to the scientific aspect of the discussion. At the same time, racist and sexist overtones have muddled the inquiry and inextricably linked it to the implementation of social policies. Nevertheless, the relative degrees of influence of genes and environment in determining the characteristics of living organisms is a legitimate and important scientific question, apart from any social or ethical consideration.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, scientists rediscovered the laws of heredity first formulated by Gregor Mendel
in 1865. Mendel understood a fundamental concept that underlies all genetic analyses: each discrete trait in a living organism, such as the color of peas, is influenced by minute particles inside the body that behave according to simple and predictable patterns. Mendel did not use the term “gene” to refer to these particles (he called them“factors”), and his pioneering work remained largely unknown to the scientific community for the remainder of the nineteenth century. Immediately following the rediscovery of Mendel’s laws in 1900, the Danish biologist Wilhelm Johannsen
proposed the fundamental distinction between “phenotype” and “genotype.” The phenotype is the ensemble of all physical and biochemical traits of a plant or animal. The composite of all the genes of an individual is its genotype. To some extent, the genotype determines the phenotype.

Reaction Norm: Environments and Genes Come Together

It was immediately clear to Johannsen that the appearance of a trait is the combined result of both the genotype and the environment, but to understand how these two factors interact took the better part of the twentieth century and is still a preeminent field of research in ecological genetics. One of the first important discoveries was that genotypes do not always produce the same phenotype; rather, the phenotype varies with the particular environment to which the genotype is exposed. For instance, if two genetically identical fruit flies are raised at two different temperatures, there will be clear distinctions in several aspects of their appearance, such as the size and shape of their wings, even though the genes present in these animals are indistinguishable.

This phenomenon can be visualized in a graph by plotting the observed phenotype on the y axis versus the environment in which that phenotype is produced on the x axis. A curve describing the relationship between environment and phenotype for each genotype is called a reaction norm. If the genotype is insensitive to environmental conditions, its reaction norm will be flat (parallel to the environmental axis); most genotypes, however, respond to alterations in the environment by producing distinct phenotypes. When the latter case occurs, that genotype is said to exhibit phenotypic plasticity. One can think of plasticity as the degree of responsiveness of a given genotype to changes in its environment: the more responsive the genotype is, the more plasticity it displays.

The first biologist to fully appreciate the importance of reaction norms and phenotypic plasticity was Ivan Schmalhausen, who wrote a book on the topic in 1947. Schmalhausen understood that natural selection acts on the shape of reaction norms: by molding the genotype’s response to the environment, selection can improve the ability of that genotype to survive under the range of environmental conditions it is likely to encounter in nature. For example, some butterflies are characterized by the existence of two seasonal forms. One form exists during the winter, when the animal’s activity is low and the main objective is to avoid predators. Accordingly, the coloration of the body is dull to blend in with the surroundings. During the summer, however, the butterflies are very active, and camouflage would not be an effective strategy against predation. Therefore, the summer generation develops brightly colored “eyespots” on its wings. The function of these spots is to attract predators’ attention away from vital organs, thereby affording the insect a better chance of survival. Developmental geneticist Paul Brakefield demonstrated, in a series of works published in the 1990s, that the genotype of these butterflies codes for proteins that sense the season by using environmental cues such as photoperiod and temperature. Depending on the perceived environment, the genotype directs the butterfly developmental system to produce or not produce the eyespots.

Quantitative Genetics of Heredity and Environment

An important aspect of science is the description of natural phenomena in mathematical form. This allows predictions of future occurrences of such phenomena. In the 1920s, Ronald Fisher developed the field of quantitative genetics, a major component of which is a powerful statistical technique known as analysis of variance. This allows a researcher to gather data on the reaction norms of several genotypes and then mathematically partition the observed phenotypic variation (Vp
) into its three fundamental constituents:

Vp
= Vg
+ Ve
+ Vge

where Vg
is the percentage of variation caused by genes, Ve
is the percentage attributable to environmental effects, and Vge
is a term accounting for the fact that different genotypes may respond differently to the same set of environmental circumstances. The power of this approach is in its simplicity: the relative balance among the three factors directly yields an answer to any question related to the nature-nurture conundrum. If Vg
is much higher than the other two components, genes play a primary role in determining the phenotype (“nature”). If Ve
prevails, the environment is the major actor (“nurture”). However, when Vge
is more significant, this suggests that genes and environments interact in a complex fashion so that any attempt to separate the two is meaningless. Anthony Bradshaw pointed out in 1965 that large values of Vge
are indeed observable in most natural populations of plants and animals.

The quantity Vg
is particularly important for the debate because when it is divided by Vp
, it yields the fundamental variable known as heritability. Contrary to intuition, heritability does not measure the degree of genetic control over a given trait but only the relative amount of phenotypic “variation” in that trait that is attributable to genes. In 1974, Richard Lewontin pointed out that Vg
(and therefore heritability) can change dramatically from one population to another, as well as from one environment to another, because Vg
depends on the frequencies of the genes that are turned on (active) in the individuals of a population. Since different sets of individuals may have different sets of genes turned on, every population can have its own value of Vg
for the same trait. Along similar lines, some genes are turned on or off in response to environmental changes; therefore, Vg
for the same population can change
depending on the environment in which that population is living. Accordingly, estimates of heritability cannot be compared between different populations or species and are only valid in one particular set of environmental conditions.

Molecular Genetics

The modern era of the study of nature-nurture interactions relies on the developments in molecular genetics that characterized the whole of biology throughout the second half of the twentieth century. In 1993, Carl Schlichting and Massimo Pigliucci proposed that specific genetic elements known as plasticity genes supervise the reactions of organisms to their surroundings. A plasticity gene normally encodes a protein that functions as a receptor of environmental signals; the receptor gauges the state of a relevant environmental variable such as temperature and sends a signal that initiates a cascade of effects eventually leading to the production of the appropriate phenotype. For example, many trees shed their leaves at the onset of winter in order to save energy and water that would be wasted by maintaining structures that are not used during the winter months. The plants need a reliable cue that winter is indeed coming to best time the shedding process. Deciduous trees use photoperiod as an indicator of seasonality. A special set of receptors known as phytochromes sense day length, and they initiate the shedding whenever day length becomes short enough to signal the onset of winter. Phytochromes are, by definition, plasticity genes.

Research on plasticity genes is a very active field in both evolutionary and molecular genetics. Johanna Schmitt’s group has demonstrated that the functionality of photoreceptors in plants has a direct effect on the fitness of the organism, thereby implying that natural selection can alter the characteristics of plasticity genes. Harry Smith and collaborators have contributed to the elucidation of the action of photoreceptors, uncovering an array of other genes that relate the receptor’s signals to different tissues and cells so that the whole organism can appropriately respond to the change in environmental conditions. Similar research is ongoing on an array of other types of receptors that respond to nutrient availability, water supply, temperature, and a host of other environmental conditions.

From an evolutionary point of view, it is important not only to uncover which genes control a given type of plasticity but also to find out if and to what extent these genes are variable in natural populations. According to neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory, natural selection is effective only if populations harbor different versions of the same genes, thereby providing an ample set of possibilities from which the most fit combinations are passed to the next generation. Thomas Mitchell-Olds pioneered a combination of statistical and molecular techniques known as quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping, which allows researchers to pinpoint the location in the genome of those genes that are both responsible for phenotypic plasticity and variable in natural populations. These genes are the most likely targets of natural selection for the future evolution of the species.

Complex Traits: Behavior and Intelligence

The most important consequence of nature-nurture interactions is their application to the human condition. Humans are compelled to investigate questions related to the degree of genetic or environmental determination of complex traits such as behavior
and intelligence. Unfortunately, such a quest is a potentially explosive mixture of science, philosophy, and politics, with the latter often perverting the practice of the first. For example, the original intention of intelligence quotient (IQ) testing
in schools, introduced by Alfred Binet
at the end of the nineteenth century, was simply to identify pupils in need of special attention in time for remedial curricula to help them. Soon, however, IQ tests became a widespread tool to support the supposed “scientific demonstration” of the innate inferiority of some races, social classes, or a particular gender (with the authors of such studies usually falling into the “superior” race, social class, or gender). During the 1970s, ethologist Edward Wilson freely extrapolated from behavioral studies on ant colonies to reach conclusions about human nature; he proposed that genes directly control many aspects of animal and human behavior, thereby establishing the new and controversial discipline of sociobiology.

The reaction against this trend of manipulating science to advance a political agenda has, in some cases, overshot the mark. Some well-intentioned biologists have gone so far as to imply either that there are no genetic differences among human beings or that they are at least irrelevant. This goes against everything that is known about variation in natural populations of any organism. There is no reason to think that humans are exceptions: since humans can measure genetically based differences in behavior and problem-solving ability in other species and relate these differences to fitness, the argument that such differences are somehow unimportant in humans is based on social goodwill rather than scientific evidence.

The problem with both positions is that they do not fully account for the fact that nature-nurture is not a dichotomy but a complex interaction. In reality, genes do not control behavior; their only function is to produce a protein, whose only function is to interact with other proteins at the cellular level. Such interactions do eventually result in what is observed as a phenotype—perhaps a phenotype that has a significant impact on a particular behavior—but this occurs only in a most indirect fashion and through plenty of environmental influences. On the other hand, plants, animals, and even humans are not infinitely pliable by environmental occurrences. Some behaviors are indeed innate, and others are the complex outcome of a genotype-environment feedback that occurs throughout the life span of an organism. In short, nature-nurture is not a matter of “either/or” but a question of how the two relate and influence each other.

As for humans, it is very likely that the precise extent of the biological basis of behavior and intelligence will never be determined because of insurmountable experimental difficulties. While it is technically feasible, it certainly is morally unacceptable to clone humans and study their characteristics under controlled conditions, the only route successfully pursued to experimentally disentangle nature and nurture in plants and animals. Studies of human twins help little, since even those separated at birth are usually raised in similar societal conditions, with the result that the effects of heredity and environment are hopelessly confounded from a statistical standpoint. Regardless of the failure of science to answer these questions fully, the more compelling argument that has been made so far is that the actual answer should not matter to society, in that every human being is entitled to the same rights and privileges as any other one, regardless of any real and sometimes profound differences in genetic makeup. Even the best science is simply the wrong tool to answer ethical questions.

Key Terms



genotype

:

the genes that are responsible for physical or biochemical traits in organisms




heritability

:

a measure of the genetic variation for a quantitative trait in a population




phenotype

:

the physical and biochemical traits of an organism




phenotypic plasticity

:

the ability of a genotype to produce different phenotypes when exposed to different environments




quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping

:

a molecular biology technique used to identify genes controlling quantitative traits in natural populations




reaction norm

:

the graphic illustration of the relationship between environment and phenotype for a given genotype





Bibliography

Baofu, Peter. Beyond Nature and Nurture: Conceiving a Better Way to Understand Genes and Memes. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars, 2006. Print.

Carson, Ronald A., and Mark A. Rothstein, eds. Behavioral Genetics: The Clash of Culture and Biology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1999. Print.

Cartwright, John. Evolution and Human Behavior: Darwinian Perspectives on Human Nature. 2nd ed. Cambridge: MIT P, 2008. Print.

Charmantier, Anne, Dany Garant, and Loeske E. B. Kruuk, eds. Quantitative Genetics in the Wild. New York: Oxford UP, 2014. Print.

Clark, William R., and Michael Grunstein. Are We Hardwired? The Role of Genes in Human Behavior. New York: Oxford UP, 2000. Print.

Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene. 30th anniv. ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2006. Print.

DeMoss, Robert T. Brain Waves through Time: 12 Principles for Understanding the Evolution of the Human Brain and Man’s Behavior. New York: Plenum, 1999. Print.

Gould, Stephen Jay. The Mismeasure of Man. Rev. and exp. ed. New York: Norton, 1996. Print.

Jablonka, Eva, and Marion J. Lamb. Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral, and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life. Rev. ed. Cambridge: MIT P, 2014. Print.

Plomin, Robert, et al. Behavioral Genetics. 6th ed. New York: Worth, 2013. Print.

Ridley, Matt. The Agile Gene: How Nature Turns on Nurture. New York: Harper, 2003. Print.

Rutter, Michael. Genes and Behavior: Nature-Nurture Interplay Explained. Malden: Blackwell, 2006. Print.

Snustad, D. Peter, and Michael J. Simmons. Principles of Genetics. 6th ed. Hoboken: Wiley, 2012. Print.

Wright, William. Born That Way: Genes, Behavior, Personality. New York: Knopf, 1998. Print.

How is isolation shown in The Great Gatsby in terms of Tom's character? Please include quotations.

Tom is very emotionally isolated, especially from his wife.  He has engaged in a pattern of unfaithfulness to her in their marriage, admitting, "'Once in a while I go off on a spree and make a fool of myself, but I always come back, and in my heart I love her all the time.'"  Daisy calls him "'revolting,'" certainly conveying a sense of emotional distance between them.  Further, he doesn't realize that she's been having an affair with Gatsby; he doesn't even know that she was ever in love with anyone before him -- Daisy has clearly not been open with him about her past relationships.  Tom seems shocked to learn that there have been any emotional problems on Daisy's end of their relationship, a fact that seems unavoidably conspicuous to everyone else from chapter one.  

Even with his mistresses, Tom is emotionally isolated.  He cares so little for Myrtle that he strikes her in the face, breaking her nose when she insists on saying Daisy's name.  So, he is neither truly emotionally connected with his wife, on whom he cheats regularly, nor with his mistresses, with whom he chooses to estrange his wife from him emotionally.  He is, thus, in many ways, alone.

What is keratitis?

Causes and Symptoms

Keratitis produces an inflammation or irritation of the cornea, the outer transparent layer of the eye. It is generally caused when the cornea has been scratched, cut, or injured so that a pathway is established for the entry of infectious agents. The resulting infection may be superficial or may involve deeper layers of the cornea. The most common cause of keratitis is the herpes
simplex virus, the same virus that produces cold sores. Initially, the virus causes inflammation of the conjunctiva, the membrane lining the eyelid. Typically, it then produces infection of the cornea with branchlike ulcerations. Less common causes of keratitis include adenoviruses, varicella zoster virus, bacteria, fungi, parasites, excessive exposure to ultraviolet light, vitamin A deficiency, rheumatic diseases, surgery on the cornea, adverse reaction to broad-spectrum antibiotics, trauma to the eye that leaves scar tissue, allergic reactions to eye makeup or other irritants, and congenital syphilis (often termed interstitial keratitis). Bacterial keratitis usually results from improper cleaning or care of contact lenses.

The symptoms of keratitis typically include one or more of the following: eye redness, tearing and itching of the eye, a sensation that foreign matter is in the eye, blurred vision or reduction of vision clarity, eyelids sticking together, pain, eye discharge, sensitivity to light, and cloudy appearance of the cornea. If keratitis is left untreated, then corneal tissue can be destroyed, scar tissue can form, and feeling in the cornea may eventually be lost. At the first sign of eye infection, proper treatment should be administered.

Treatment and Therapy

Medical treatment of keratitis varies according to the cause. Antiviral eyedrops are administered for viral keratitis. Oral or eyedrop antibiotics are used for other infections. Some ophthalmologists prefer to scrape diseased tissue from the cornea, apply anesthetic eyedrops, and cover the eye temporarily with a patch. Later, the patient may wear a special type of contact lens to prevent a reoccurrence of the infection. For cases involving dry eyes, artificial tears are prescribed for lubrication. Contact lenses may need to be replaced. In the case of vitamin A deficiency,
supplements and foods rich in vitamin A (such as carrots, mangoes, spinach, squash, and liver) are prescribed.

Perspective and Prospects

Approximately fifty thousand cases of keratitis are diagnosed worldwide each year. It is the most common cause of corneal blindness
in the United States. If treatment for keratitis is started early, then it is typically very effective. In the treatment of keratitis caused by the herpes simplex virus, it is very important not to use topical corticosteroids, as they may worsen the infection and even lead to blindness. Because herpes simplex virus remains in the body after treatment, there is a 50 percent chance that keratitis may reoccur.

Bibliography

Parker, James N. and Philip M. Parker. Keratitis: A Bibliography, Medical Dictionary, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References. San Diego, Calif.: Icon Health, 2004.

Parker, James N., and Philip M. Parker, eds. The Official Patient’s Sourcebook on Keratitis. San Diego, Calif.: Icon Health, 2002.

Vorvick, Linda J. "Corneal Ulcers and Infections." MedlinePlus, March 22, 2013.

Wilhelmus, Kirk R., and Thomas J. Liesegang, eds. Interstitial Keratitis. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1994.

What is Lynch syndrome?

Risk Factors

Lynch syndrome poses an increased risk of colorectal, stomach, small bowel, gallbladder duct, upper urinary tract, brain, and skin cancers. Women with LS have additional risk of endometrial and ovarian cancer. A diagnosis can be made by family history and is typically confirmed with the finding of a genetic alteration (mutation) in a mismatch repair (MMR) gene.

Etiology and Genetics

Lynch syndrome is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion, with most individuals inheriting this altered gene from their parent.

Lynch syndrome is most commonly associated with gene changes (mutations) found in mismatch repair genes. When functioning properly, MMR genes routinely repair damaged or erroneous sections of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). However, with only one functioning copy of the MMR gene, the cell is less able to repair the mistakes in DNA that accumulate. As abnormal cells continue to grow and divide, the mistakes are perpetuated, and can result in uncontrolled cell growth and possibly cancer.

Researchers best understand the significance of four MMR genes. Genetic variations in MMR genes named MLH1 (on chromosome 3), MSH2 and MSH6 (both on chromosome 2), and PMS2 (on chromosome 7) increase the risk of developing colorectal and LS-related cancers. Inactivation may result from deletions, mutations, or splicing errors occurring anywhere throughout the gene. The genes responsible for 20 to 25 percent of colorectal cancer cases are currently unknown and have not yet been discovered.

Having LS confers an increased risk of cancers. The lifetime risk of colorectal cancer for men with LS is currently estimated at 66 percent; the figure is 42 percent for women. Women also have an increased risk of 39 percent for endometrial cancer throughout the lifetime.

Symptoms

Despite the term “nonpolyposis,” patients with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), another name for LS, do have polyps. Individuals with HNPCC tend to develop less than one hundred polyps, which is much fewer than other forms of inherited colorectal cancers. Polyp formation generally begins with patients between twenty and thirty years of age. The polyps are typically right-sided adenomas that can be more aggressive than nonhereditary colorectal cancers.

Screening and Diagnosis

Individuals with a strong family history of cancer are encouraged to seek genetic counseling to determine their personal risk status. Carrier testing via DNA analysis (called microsatellite instability testing) may be useful to confirm or rule out personal risks. DNA testing is not usually recommended for individuals under the age of eighteen; however, screening for colorectal cancer may be initiated.

Individuals with colorectal cancer or other LS-associated cancers often confirm the diagnosis of LS by testing the tumor directly. Current practices include DNA testing MMR genes for instability (microsatellite instability, or MSI testing). The tumor can also be tested by chemically staining thin sections (immunohistochemistry), which are later evaluated by a pathologist.

Full colonoscopy screenings should be performed every one to two years because of the aggressive nature of LS-associated colorectal cancers. Colonoscopy screening should be initiated between the ages of twenty and twenty-five, or ten years before the earliest age of diagnosis in the family (whichever comes first).

Endometrial and ovarian cancer surveillance is less established than screening for colorectal cancer. In addition to annual examinations, annual transvaginal ultrasounds and the CA-125 blood test are also available.

Other screening practices are also available for stomach and urinary tract cancers including gastroscopy and ultrasonography respectively. No specific screening recommendations are currently available for gallbladder and brain cancers.

Treatment and Therapy

Treatment of colorectal cancers and other LS-associated cancers is dependent upon the nature of the cancer. Typically chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery are available as effective treatments.

Prevention and Outcomes

The use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and aspirin has been shown to be effective in preventing some colorectal cancers in patients with other types of hereditary colorectal cancer conditions. The efficacy in individuals with LS, however, is currently unknown.

Oral contraceptives have been shown to reduce the risk of ovarian and endometrial cancers in the general public; however it is not known whether they are as effective in risk reduction for individuals with LS.

Because routine colonoscopy is effective in detecting colon cancer, prophylactic surgery (removal of the colon) is generally not recommended for individuals with LS. Upon the finding of initial colorectal cancer, however, colectomies are recommended given the accelerated rate of carcinogenesis of LS-related colorectal cancers.

Prophylactic removal of the uterus and ovaries after childbearing years is optional for females with concerns with gynecologic cancers associated with LS.

In general, LS-associated cancers have the most positive outcome when detected early; thus adhering to recommended screening practices is essential to optimal care. Patients with Lynch syndrome have better rates of survival after colorectal cancer in comparison to patients with sporadic (nonhereditary) colorectal cancers.

Bibliography

Bonis, P. A., et al. “Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer: Diagnostic Strategies and Their Implications.” Evidence Report/Technology Assessment 150 (2007): 1–180.

Jankowski, Janusz A. Z. Inflammation and Gastrointestinal Cancers. Heidelberg: Springer, 2011. Print.

Lindor, N. M., et al. “Recommendations for the Care of Individuals with an Inherited Predisposition to Lynch Syndrome: A Systematic Review.” JAMA 296.12 (2006): 1507–517.

Lynch, H. T., and J. F. Lynch. “What the Physician Needs to Know About Lynch Syndrome: An Update.” Oncology 19.4 (2005): 455–63.

McKusick, Victor A. “Lynch Syndrome I.” Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. Johns Hopkins U, 12 Feb. 2014. Web. 1 Aug. 2014.

Munoz, Juan Carlos. “Hereditary Colorectal Cancer.” Medscape. WebMD, 18 Apr. 2013. Web. 1 Aug. 2014.

What health problems does Junior have? Describe his attitude toward these problems.

Junior was born with "water on the brain," also called hydrocephaly. This is a condition where fluid builds up in the cranium and can cause brain damage or swelling of the skull. Junior attributes his large skull to having been born with hydrocephaly, and believes it is also the cause of his abnormal number of teeth- forty-two in all. He also suffers seizures and has poor eyesight, which may be the result of some brain damage from the swelling in his cranium. When Junior was an infant, he had surgery to correct the hydrocephaly, but he is still physically atypical today. He also describes himself as being very thin, with big hands and feet.

Junior has been the subject of much discrimination and teasing during his life. Though he has built up a thick skin to such treatment, it still makes him angry inside when people attack his lisp or appearance. He spends a lot of time by himself, reading and drawing, to avoid being picked on. Despite being physically atypical and the fact that his family is impoverished, Junior has an unshakable thirst for opportunity. He hopes that his drawings might make him rich and famous one day and take him away from the troubles of the Reservation. When Junior becomes one of the best players on his basketball team, he finds that people are willing to overlook the ways in which he might be strange because he is good at something.

What is rhinitis?

Causes and Symptoms

Rhinitis can have a variety of causes, including infection by a rhinovirus or certain bacteria and exposure to cold air or nasal allergens. Foreign bodies in the nose and certain structural deformities can also cause rhinitis.

When the nasal symptoms are due to allergies, the condition is called allergic rhinitis. A partial list of allergens that can produce allergic rhinitis includes pollen, dust, molds, wool, feathers, tobacco smoke, airborne environmental pollutants, strong odors, spicy foods, and animal dander.

When the nasal symptoms are not due to allergies, the condition is called nonallergic rhinitis or nonallergic vasomotor rhinitis. Nonallergic rhinitis can be caused by a viral or bacterial infection, exposure to cold air, structural deformities, certain endocrine disorders such as hypothyroidism, or emotional stress; it is occasionally observed during the first trimester of pregnancy. Nonallergic rhinitis usually begins with a feeling of irritation in the nose or throat. The irritation is followed by sneezing and mucus discharge as the nasal air passageways become more obstructed.

Atrophic rhinitis, a chronic form of nonallergic rhinitis, is a condition often seen first at puberty; because there is a genetic component, the condition tends to run in families. The causes of atrophic rhinitis are not fully understood, although deficiencies in iron and vitamins A and D may contribute. In this condition, the moist, pink, thick lining of the inside of the nose is replaced by a thin crusty surface that can be foul smelling. Although the nasal cavity is wide open, people often complain of a feeling of stuffiness. The condition is sometimes accompanied by nosebleeds.

Nasal dripping and/or sneezing can be seen with all the forms of rhinitis. The discharge can be clear and watery or thicker and more viscous. It can be colorless; if there is a color, it is often white or less often green or yellow. Postnasal drip is when the discharge is into the back of the throat, a condition that can result in a dry, usually nonproductive cough.

Treatment and Therapy

The treatment for rhinitis is an attempt to manage symptoms. The most effective treatment for allergic rhinitis is to remove the source of the irritation. In the home, keeping the windows closed, using an air conditioner, and filtering the circulating air can reduce allergen exposure. Saline irrigation can also be used to reduce the nasal symptoms. When symptoms persist despite these efforts, treatment focuses on minimizing the allergic response. This can be done using antihistamines, steroids, or antileukotrienes.

When the body encounters an allergen, the white blood cells produce antibodies, which then promote the release of compounds called mediators. Histamine is perhaps the best known of these mediators. The mediators trigger the nasal symptoms. Most of the drugs used to treat allergic rhinitis are designed to inhibit the actions of the mediators. Antihistamines block the action of histamine and so significantly reduce swelling and discharge. Likewise, antileukotrienes work by blocking leukotrienes, another immune system mediator. The mechanism by which nasal steroids (usually given in the form of a spray) work is less clear, but they can provide temporary relief.

When the symptoms do not respond well to the above treatments, immunotherapy is required. For this treatment, it is necessary to determine the allergens to which the person is sensitive. This can be accomplished in a variety of ways, although skin or blood testing are the most common. Once the specific allergen has been identified, the immune system can be desensitized through carefully administered challenges, which in effect raise the tolerance level necessary to produce the nasal symptoms.

If the cause of nonallergic rhinitis was exposure to cold air, then going into a warmer environment will usually eliminate the symptoms. If the cause is the common cold or the flu, then symptoms are sometimes relieved by decongestants and/or antihistamines. Some of these drugs are available over the counter, while others require a prescription. Unless there is a primary or secondary bacterial infection accompanying the rhinitis, antibiotics are not effective. Drinking lots of fluids, getting bed rest, and breathing humidified air can reduce the discomfort. With any viral or bacterial infection (especially H1N1 influenza infections), a medical professional should be consulted immediately if breathing becomes a problem. Muscle aching and the general feeling of malaise that accompanies nonallergic rhinitis can often be relieved by over-the-counter medications such as aspirin or ibuprofen.

Atrophic rhinitis can be treated be irrigating the nose with saline. If a bacterial infection is present, then antibiotics are indicated. The crusting can be treated by irrigation with nasal douches. In severe cases, atrophic rhinitis is treated by Young’s operation, a surgical procedure that reduces the size of the nasal cavity.

When the cause of the rhinitis is a foreign body or structural deformity, removing the foreign body or surgically changing the internal structure of the nose often eliminates the symptoms.

Perspective and Prospects

Considerable financial and personal costs are associated with rhinitis, since it is such a common condition. Because rhinitis is so common, considerable effort is going into completely understanding this disease. As a result, new treatments with fewer side effects should become available.

Bibliography

Baraniuk, James N., and Dennis Shusterman, eds. Nonallergic Rhinitis. New York: Informa Healthcare, 2007.

Busse, William W., and Stephen T. Holgate, eds. Asthma and Rhinitis. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2000.

Carson-DeWitt, Rosalyn. "Allergic Rhinitis." Health Library, October 31, 2012.

Henochowicz, Stuart I. "Allergic Rhinitis." MedlinePlus, June 17, 2012.

Henochowicz, Stuart I. "Vasomotor Rhinitis." MedlinePlus, June 17, 2012.

Scadding, Glenis K., and Wytske J. Hokkens. Rhinitis. Albuquerque, N.Mex.: Health Press, 2007.

Compare the economic systems in Japan, China and India

All three countries could be accurately described as "mixed economies", but that's kind of a cop-out because it applies to almost everyone. Even countries with extreme levels of privatization (such as the US) still have a strong government; even countries with extreme levels of nationalization (such as Cuba) usually still have private businesses. There are some very important differences between China, India, and Japan.

All three of these Asian countries have very large populations and very large economies.

Japan has the smallest population, but still by no means small: China has a population of 1.375 billion, India a population of 1.272 billion, and Japan a population of 127 million.

India has the smallest GDP, but again still quite large: The nominal GDP of China is $13.95 trillion, the nominal GDP of Japan is $4.21 trillion and the nominal GDP of India is $2.40 trillion.

The first thing you should be able to see from this comparison is that in per-capita terms, Japan is by far the richest; China is also a good deal richer than India.

During the mid 20th century, Japan underwent extremely rapid growth, rising from a per-capita GDP comparable to India in the 1940s to one comparable to Europe today. China is currently in a similar period of rapid growth, and if they can sustain it they may too attain a First World standard of living as Japan did.

India, on the other hand, has not grown very much at all until quite recently. For most of the 20th century their per-capita income was basically stagnant. Only in the last 10 years or so has India finally begun to see rapid economic growth.

Japan has a stronger free-market orientation than either India or China, but they do have substantial government intervention in their markets, primarily through the form of government-subsidized conglomerates, remnants of the old zaibatsu system that prevailed before the US occupation after WW2. Still, it would be apt to describe Japan as a social democracy or capitalist welfare state, similar to most countries in Europe. While their economic growth has been stagnant recently (much like Europe!), they are a free society with a high standard of living.

China is still in many ways a Communist country, with an authoritarian government that maintains substantial control over society and the economy. Recent reforms have expanded certain freedoms for businesses (likely contributing to their recent economic growth), but the government maintains strict control over social policy and corruption is rampant. Media (including the Internet) is censored, and the population is under nearly constant surveillance.

India sort of has the opposite problem: Their government is clearly much too weak. They have been unable to provide adequate infrastructure to most of the population---most places do not have reliable water or electricity, and a recent attempt to put a toilet in every home (something we in the First World take for granted!) failed quite dismally. Regulatory enforcement is weak, and informal employment ranging from odd jobs and cash businesses at the better end all the way down to illegal drugs and even human trafficking at the worse end are a very large segment of the economy, accounting for as much as 30% of national income. While unemployment is not all that high (not that many people are actively seeking formal employment), employment is quite low, especially for women (people simply don't have jobs and aren't trying to get them). India also has quite high corruption, but instead of being a powerful corrupt elite as it is in China, it's more of a widespread general grey/black market that still provides a large portion of economic services. India's government is actually quite democratic, with a multiparty system that is in some ways more representative of public opinion than that of the United States. But that government is so incompetent and underfunded that they are incapable of properly enforcing regulations and collecting taxes on the scale that India needs. India actually has a lot of very strict regulations that are probably unnecessary or even harmful; but in real terms hardly any of them are reliably enforced, because nothing is. Running a business in full compliance of regulations in India is almost impossible; but instead businesses run outside of compliance and know which officials to bribe.

China looks like they are doing better right now, but honestly I think the long-run outcome in India will probably be better. Their strong democracy will sooner or later let them establish a competent government, and they'll start raising their standard of living as Japan did. China isn't having too much problem with economic growth, but their authoritarian government shows no sign of weakening, and if anything grows more draconian against personal liberty and freedom of expression. India has bad economic policy but a free government, and the latter can eventually fix the former; but China has good economic policy and oppressive government, and there's very little evidence that the former does anything about the latter. China is probably on a trajectory to be more like Saudi Arabia, where a powerful authoritarian government presides over a society at a high standard of living.

How are stock characters used in The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde?

Most of the characters in The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde are based on the prototypical stock characters of Roman comedy. They are often used for humorous effect. Some of the stock characters are:

Lane: Algernon's butler is an example of the servus callidus, the clever servant. This tends to be funny because of the incongruity of the servant who can appear smarter and more "noble" than his master.

Algernon Moncrieff and Jack Worthing: These are slightly older and smarter versions of the adulescens, the young male lover who is a typical protagonist. The comedy in Wilde comes from the way that the two young men at first go against type by appearing worldly and cynical, but then reveal themselves as just as romantic and impulsive as their prototype. 

Lady Bracknell: She fits the role of the matrona, and is an hyperbolic version of this stock character. The humor is derives from the way she inverts gender roles, by being a powerful force in a patriarchal world.

Reverend Chasuble: This is a stock character of the senex, the old man, who creates comedy by falling in love in a somewhat incongruous fashion. 

Why does Gatsby show Daisy all of his shirts? How does Daisy react and why?

This iconic scene is one of the most memorable ones in the novel. Gatsby takes advantage of Daisy being in his dressing area to show her his vast assortment of finely-made shirts. He casually mentions they are bought for him in England. He tosses them, along with many silk ties, into the air, and Daisy is overwhelmed by their quality and also by the realization that Gatsby is wealthy. She refused to accept his marriage proposal when she was younger because Gatsby had nothing; and now he has immense wealth. She sobs when she comments on how beautiful the shirts are, saying she's never seen such beautiful shirts before. She is mourning her bad decision and, perhaps, her lost youth and missed opportunities.

It is somewhat cold-hearted of Gatsby to remind her of what she rejected; and knowing Daisy's love of fine clothing and luxury, he very likely knows the impact his actions will have. But like many of the things he does when Daisy becomes part of his life again after so many years, he carefully calculates the effect of his actions in order to win her over. Gatsby is trying to seduce Daisy and prove to her that his determination to become a rich man had to do with winning her love. He is successful, because Daisy has an extramarital affair with him, even though it eventually becomes clear she won't leave her husband. Gatsby's selfish desire to steal Daisy from her husband is matched by Daisy's selfish refusal to uproot her life to be with Gatsby.

What is the relationship between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth like after Act 2?

The close relationship that existed between Macbeth and his wife before they committed the murder of their sovereign appears to have been badly damaged as a result of that unspeakable and irreparable deed. In Act III, Scene 2, Lady Macbeth describes what is happening to them.

How now, my lord! Why do you keep alone,
Of sorriest fancies your companions making,
Using those thoughts which should indeed have died
With them they think on? Things without all remedy
Should be without regard. What's done is done.

Macbeth is keeping away from everybody including his wife. He is doing so, as his wife tells him and the audience, because he bitterly regrets killing Duncan. He is torn by feelings of guilt, remorse, shame, and fear for the loss of his soul. He doesn't want to see his wife because she would only remind him of what they both did. And she apparently has not gone looking for him because she knows he will have to go through a period of mourning in seclusion. She herself is not especially remorseful, but she has discovered that there is not the satisfaction that she expected in fulfulling her wish to become queen. 

Lady Macbeth will appear with her husband in Scene 4 of Act III, during which they are mostly hostile to each other. After that she will disappear until the last act of the play. She is all alone in her sleepwalking scene in Act V, Scene 1. When Seaton tells him the queen is dead, Macbeth simply says:

She should have died hereafter;
There would have been a time for such a word.    V.5

What is family systems theory?

Introduction

Family systems theory developed from several prominent influences during the 1950s. These influences include general systems theory (GST), psychoanalysis, developmental psychology, and the disruption of family relationships during World War II (and their subsequent rebuilding). Austrian-born biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy developed general systems theory, which later influenced the development of family systems theory. Von Bertalanffy examined scientific and social phenomena holistically (exploring the whole) as opposed to using a reductionist or mechanistic approach (emphasizing the parts). In other words, he explored how parts of an organization or system interact and connect with one another to form a holistic working system.

American psychiatrist Murray Bowen is one of the foundational theorists of family systems theory. Bowen was born in the small town of Waverly, Tennessee. He was the oldest of five children and frequently had difficult relationships with his family members. Bowen readily drew on his own problematic family experiences in developing his systemic view of families. Bowen believed that the primary source of human emotional experience is the extended family unit. He believed that family members are emotionally interdependent and functional in reciprocal relationships with one another. Bowen’s family therapy is often referred to as Bowen family systems theory or Bowenian therapy.

Argentine psychiatrist and family therapist Salvador Minuchin is another foundational family theorist. Minuchin examined the structure of the family and the way the family system interrelates. He believes that the way in which a family deals with stressors indicates whether a family system is functional or dysfunctional. He especially explored how family members developed appropriate social boundaries with one another. Minuchin pioneered such techniques as joining, whereby the family therapist enters into the family system and joins it so that it can be positively restructured or so that the family system can be a catalyst for positive change. Minuchin is credited with developing
structural family therapy. He continues his work in family therapy through the Minuchin Center for Family Therapy.

American psychotherapist Jay Haley was also an influential figure in founding family therapy. He was the founding editor of the family therapy journal Family Process, and he significantly contributed to and shaped the empirical study of psychotherapy and family systems theory. He is credited with coining the term “strategic therapy” to describe a new type of family therapy, which differs from Bowenian family therapy. He worked with Minuchin and was involved in the evolution of structural family therapy.

American Virginia Satir
is also credited with significantly shaping the family therapy movement. Satir studied how self-esteem develops in families and influences interpersonal relationships and relationship choices. For example, she asserted that in choosing romantic partners, individuals often choose a partner who matches their level of self-esteem, low or high. She called her system the human validation process model and incorporated humanism (a philosophy that affirms the dignity and worth of all people) and existentialism (a philosophy that focuses on the holistic experiences of an individual—thinking, feeling, and sensing) into her family systems work. She was often criticized for her humanistic focus by other family therapists. Although Satir made important contributions to the family therapy field, she eventually stopped doing family therapy because she was not embraced by her family therapy colleagues.

Theoretical Overview

In general, all family theorists subscribe to some basic beliefs. One significant belief is that the family is an interconnected unit or system wherein the actions of one family member affect all members in the family system. Family systems theory examines the organization, structure, and complexity of families and familial relationships. Family theorists explore patterns in families over generations, which in Bowen’s family therapy is known as the multigenerational transmission process. An example of a multigenerational pattern might be if a grandfather, a father, and his son are all alcoholics. The substance abuse experienced in this family over generations would be considered a multigenerational pattern. Most family theorists also explore family members’ emotional, social, and psychological boundaries with one another. Minuchin’s work with families frequently focused on familial boundaries. Boundaries are respectful limits or social rules that govern the development and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. In family systems theory, healthy interpersonal boundaries permit appropriate degrees of emotional intimacy between two people. Families with few boundaries may be considered enmeshed or so deeply involved with one another that individual family members have difficulty establishing individual identities separate from their families. Family therapists often examine healthy and unhealthy boundaries within a family system.

Although family systems theory does explore past family history within a family system, its focus is primarily on the present. Family systems therapy can be done with individuals, couples, or the entire family. Families can be broken down into subsystems, which are often organized hierarchically, by gender or by generation. Family therapists explore relationship patterns among familial subsystems as well as how these subsystems affect the entire family unit. The two most popular forms of family systems therapy are Bowen family systems therapy and structural family therapy.

The Bowen family systems theory explores how individual family members differentiate themselves from their families of origin. The differentiation process is how individuals can remain a member of a family system and still be a separate individual, emotionally and psychologically. Bowen also explored relationship alliances in families, called triangles. Triangles are the basic building blocks of an emotional system and begin with a relationship alliance between two people. Bowen believed that when there is tension or stress in the relationship between these two people, a third person or thing is brought in to relieve this tension. This is known as triangulation, where two individuals are on the inside and another is on the outside of the relationship. For example, if a married couple is having difficulty with each other, they may focus on their children instead of confronting the problems within their marriage. Another example of triangulation is if the couple introduces their children into their marital conflicts so that the couple does not have to face their problems with one another. Bowen frequently drew family diagrams to examine relational patterns, identify family members, and highlight important family history and events. These diagrams are known as genograms and are still considered an important technique in family therapy.

At the heart of Bowen’s work was his idea that within the nuclear family, relationships are shaped by how family members deal with anxiety within (and outside) the family. When families experience stress, members sometimes draw closer to one another or distance themselves. He describes the distancing as an emotional cutoff. Sometimes individuals who experience high levels of family conflict may cut themselves off from family members when they become adolescents or adults.

Minuchin’s structural family therapy (SFT) differs from Bowen’s family therapy in that Minuchin focused more on the social contexts in which families exist and the structure of families. Structural family therapy has its own unique terminology. Minuchin formally introduced the concept of exploring family subsystems. He stresses the exploration of boundaries within the family system in structural family therapy. Minuchin believes that family relationships are frequently organized by power hierarchies. For example, in a nuclear family, the parents may have the most power. This is usually considered an appropriate family structure. Healthy families show some flexibility in boundaries over time. For example, when young children become adolescents, they are usually allowed more freedom in making decisions than they were as children. However, dysfunctional families tend to be inflexible and unchanging over time. Minuchin believed that dysfunctional families develop inappropriate coalitions (alliances) among familial subsystems, which disrupt appropriate family hierarchies or subsystems. An example of this would be if a mother and daughter align themselves against the father. In such a case, Minuchin’s goal would be to restructure the family system so that the mother and father develop a healthy coalition, which would rebalance the family system. In doing so, the appropriate hierarchy between parents and children is maintained. Minuchin would use the technique of joining or becoming a part of the family system so that it can be restructured.

Structural family therapy restructures families by unbalancing the current family system. Minuchin would often intentionally cause the family conflict and upheaval, which requires the family to change. In family therapy sessions, Minuchin would frequently isolate family coalitions from one another (either physically in the room or by asking family members to leave the room), deliberately break family rules, or have some family members watch other members in session, from behind a two-way mirror. These interventions were specifically designed to restructure unhealthy family patterns into more healthy ones.

Some key concepts of structural family therapy include family rules, family homeostasis, quid pro quo, the redundancy principle, symmetrical and complementary relationships, and circular causality. A structural family therapist would examine the covert and overt rules that govern the family. Minuchin believed that it was critical to understand a family’s rules so that the therapist can then join the family system. Families tend to remain in the same pattern of functioning over time unless challenged to change. This is known as homeostasis. When structural family therapists unbalance a family system, they disrupt homeostasis. This is disruptive for families but allows them to be restructured. Family members often treat one another in the ways in which they are treated. This is known as quid pro quo. Families behave in repetitive ways over time (redundancy principle). Structural family therapy describes relationships between family members in terms of power. Symmetrical relationships occur between equals (mother-father), and complementary relationships occur between unequals (parent-child). Finally, the idea that events are interconnected and that behaviors are caused by multiple factors is known as circular causality. Structural family therapy is considered brief therapy (about ten sessions). It focuses on what needs to be changed and what solutions the family has already tried.

Treatment Success

Almost all family therapy is based on family systems theory. Family therapy has been successfully used with several different clinical populations, including families with members who have substance abuse issues, anorexia, schizophrenia, developmental delays, autism, and mood disorders. Family therapy is also successful with nonclinical populations and helps families adjust to changes, crises, and other problematic issues that develop within them. Family therapy is frequently considered the treatment of choice for these sorts of issues. Family therapy has expanded its focus from the nuclear family to explore nontraditional families, such as those with stepparents, stepsisters, and stepbrothers.

African American family therapist Nancy Boyd-Franklin has criticized traditional family therapy approaches that did not incorporate cultural sensitively within their treatment frameworks. Training of family therapists has come to incorporate multicultural family therapy approaches, which emphasize understanding how culture and ethnicity influence concepts such as differentiation, the multigenerational transmission process, and other traditional family therapy concepts. Boyd-Franklin highlighted the necessity of incorporating woman-led (single-mother) families and families in which extended family members are as important as the nuclear family into family therapy treatment frameworks. Some family therapists are also trained to work with families in which there are one or two gay parents.

Bibliography

Bregman, Ona Cohn, and Charles M. White. Bringing Systems Thinking to Life: Expanding the Horizons for Bowen Family Systems Theory. New York: Routledge, 2011. Print.

Bowen, M. Family Therapy in Clinical Practice. Northvale: Aronson, 1968. Print.

Boyd-Franklin, N., and B. Hafer Bry. Reaching Out in Family Therapy: Home-Based, School, and Community Interventions. New York: Guilford, 2001. Print.

Haley, J. Problem-Solving Therapy. 2d ed. San Francisco: Jossey, 1991. Print.

MacKay, Linda. "Trauma and Bowen Family Systems Theory: Working with Adults Who were Abused as Children." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy 33.3 (2012): 232–41. Print.

Minuchin, Salvador. Families and Family Therapy. London: Routledge, 1993. Print.

Nichols, Michael P. The Essentials of Family Therapy. 6th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2014. Print.

Satir, V., J. Banmen, J. Gerber, and M. Gomori. Satir Model: Family Therapy and Beyond. Palo Alto: Science and Behavioral, 1991. Print.

Steinglass, P. “A Systems View of Family Interaction and Psychopathology.” Family Interaction and Psychopathology. Ed. T. Jacob. New York: Plenum, 1987. Print.

Whitchurch, G., and L. Constantine. “Systems Theory.” Sourcebook of Family Theories and Methods: A Contextual Approach. Ed. P. Boss, et al. New York: Plenum, 1993. Print.

What is uterine cancer?

Related conditions:
Cancer of the cervix, Fallopian tube cancer, bladder cancer, vaginal cancer, rectal cancer, ovarian cancer

Definition:


The uterus has a body (also called the corpus), which is located within the lower portion of the abdominal cavity between the bladder and the rectum, and a vaginal portion, referred to as the cervix. Although the uterus and cervix are continuous, they are considered as separate structures with respect to cancer. Further, the uterus has a covering (the serosa), a layer of muscle (the myometrium), and a layer of cells (the endometrium) lining the uterine cavity (the uterine cavity is the site for fetal growth during pregnancy). Cancer of the uterus most often involves the endometrium, with the myometrium the less frequent site of cancer. The Fallopian tubes are connected to the top of the uterus on either side but are not considered part of the uterus. Cancer of the uterus is thus defined as cancer of the body of the uterus (the endometrium or myometrium), as opposed to cancer arising from the cervix or metastatic from an adjacent structure (such as the vagina, Fallopian tube, ovary, bladder, or rectum).

Risk factors: Factors that increase the risk of uterine cancer include the use of estrogen-containing medications without the addition of progesterone (called the unopposed estrogen effect; progesterone neutralizes the stimulatory effect of estrogen on the endometrium of the uterus), late menopause, obesity, infertility or not having given birth to a child (also known as nulliparity), diabetes, estrogen-secreting ovarian tumors, polycystic ovarian syndrome, high blood pressure, increased dietary fat intake, Lynch syndrome, radiation therapy to the pelvis for other reasons, and endometrial polyps.

The factors known to decrease a woman’s risk of cancer of the uterus include interrupted ovulation (during and shortly after pregnancy or while using oral contraceptives, which prevent ovulation), use of progesterone as a therapeutic supplement, menopause, normal weight, and having given birth to more than one child (also known as multiparity).

Etiology and the disease process: Cancer of the uterus most often occurs in women in the menopause or those approaching the menopause (that is, perimenopause), with a peak occurrence between the ages of fifty and sixty-five. In women who have long-term unopposed estrogen stimulation, the endometrium undergoes hyperplastic changes that are benign but precede the development of cancer. In most cases, hyperplastic changes can be reversed with the discontinuation of estrogen or the addition of progesterone. The risk of endometrial hyperplasia progressing to cancer increases with age.

Incidence: Cancer of the uterus is the most frequent cancer involving the female reproductive tract in the United States and the fourth most frequent cancer affecting women, behind breast, lung, and colorectal cancer. There are approximately 52,630 new cases of uterine cancer each year with about eight thousand deaths.

Symptoms: Abnormal bleeding through the vagina is the most common symptom associated with cancer of the uterus, occurring in about 90 percent of cases. Such bleeding may arise from the vagina, bladder, or rectum and must be thoroughly evaluated. Fortunately, abnormal bleeding is not always a sign of uterine cancer. For premenopausal women, the bleeding may take the form of breakthrough, prolonged, or heavy bleeding, all of which generally reflect an underlying hormonal imbalance and can be treated as such. For postmenopausal women, any bleeding should be considered abnormal and should be evaluated by a gynecologist. Other symptoms may include pain in the pelvis, a noticeable lump in the pelvic area, and pain during urination or sexual intercourse.

Screening and diagnosis: Unlike cancer of the cervix or breast cancer, which have well-accepted and effective screening tests (Pap smears and mammography, respectively), no simple screening test exists for cancer of the uterus. Nevertheless, two procedures are available for anyone at high risk: endometrial sampling and measurement of the endometrial thickness (or lining).

Endometrial sampling (endometrial biopsy) is an office-based procedure in which a small, flexible, plastic catheter is inserted into the uterus, and the cells lining the uterus (endometrial cells) are aspirated (sucked) into the catheter. Endometrial sampling is a relatively painless procedure, although some women experience mild uterine cramping. The aspirated cells are sent to a laboratory for microscopic evaluation, similar to a Pap smear. Endometrial sampling can also serve as the diagnostic test for endometrial cancer. In some cases, if the diagnosis of uterine cancer is in question based on endometrial sampling, a dilation and curettage (D&C) can be performed as an outpatient procedure in which more extensive sampling of the uterine cavity can be undertaken without causing discomfort to the patient. In rare cases, the diagnosis of uterine cancer is made at the time of a hysterectomy being performed for other indications.

Measurement of the endometrial thickness is also an office-based procedure but in some cases is done by a radiologist. An ultrasound probe is inserted through the vagina (transvaginal ultrasound) to measure the thickness of the lining of the uterus. The procedure is painless and takes only a few minutes to perform. Measurement of the endometrial thickness is most appropriate for menopausal women. An endometrial thickness less than 4 millimeters (mm) is rarely associated with a uterine malignancy in a woman not taking hormones, or less than 8 mm in a woman on hormones.

Staging of uterine cancer is according to the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) as follows:

• Stage I: Cancer limited to the endometrium or myometrium





• Stage II: Cancer extending from the body of the uterus to the cervix





• Stage III: Cancer protruding through the serosa or metastases to the vagina, pelvis, or lymph nodes adjacent to the aorta





• Stage IV: Metastases to the bladder, bowel, or organs outside the pelvis in the abdomen

Treatment and therapy: Surgery, typically a hysterectomy with removal of the Fallopian tubes and ovaries and sampling of the local lymph nodes, is the mainstay of treatment. Radiation therapy is reserved for patients who are poor surgical candidates (such as patients with severe heart or respiratory diseases) or have unresectable disease. Chemotherapy is usually of limited value, being used primarily for women with metastatic disease. The blood test for cancer antigen 125 (CA 125) is not diagnostic of cancer of the uterus but can be used to monitor a patient for recurrence.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: Prognostic factors for uterine cancer include age at the time of diagnosis, race (whites have a better prognosis than blacks), tumor stage, tumor grade, type of tumor (adenocarcinoma, clear cell adenocarcinoma, papillary serous adenocarcinoma, sarcoma, and so on), size of the uterus at the time of diagnosis, depth of invasion of the tumor into the layer of uterine muscle, presence of tumor in the blood vessels supplying the uterus, and spread of the tumor outside the uterus to other organs or lymph nodes. The overall five-year survival rates for cancer of the uterus is about 95 percent for local cases, 68 percent when regionally metastasized, and 17 percent with distant spread.

Creasman, W. T., et al. “Carcinoma of the Corpus Uteri: FIGO Annual Report on the Results of Treatment in Gynecological Cancer.” Intl. Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics 95 Suppl. 1 (2006): S105–S143. PubMed. Web. 6 Jan. 2015.

"Endometrial Cancer." Cancer.org. American Cancer Soc., 3 Feb. 2014. Web. 6 Jan. 2015.

Parazzini, F., et al. “The Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer.” Gynecologic Oncology 41.1 (1991): 1-16. PubMed. Web. 6 Jan. 2015.

"Uterine Cancer." MedlinePlus. Natl. Lib. of Medicine, Natl. Institutes of Health, 23 Dec. 2014. Web. 6 Jan. 2015.

"Uterine Cancer: Overview." Cancer.net. American Soc. of Clinical Oncology, 2014. Web. 6 Jan. 2015.

Is Johnny really suicidal?

In Chapter 3, Johnny and Ponyboy are lying on their backs watching the stars. Johnny is smoking a cigarette and says that Cherry was embarrassed to be seen with them because they were Greasers. Johnny then tells Ponyboy that he can't take it anymore and says, "I'll kill myself or something" (Hinton 47). Ponyboy is alarmed at Johnny's comment and tells him that he can't kill himself. Johnny says that he won't and comments that he has to do something about it. He tells Ponyboy that he wishes he could go to a place where there are no Socs or Greasers, and everyone is ordinary. Based off of Johnny's comments, I do not think that he is suicidal, but I do think that he should speak to a therapist. Johnny clearly has personal issues and is lacking a supportive family. His environment is not conducive to a prosperous future, and he needs to leave the city. Although his friends are genuine, they participate in illegal activities which only increase Johnny's stress. Johnny is not totally disillusioned with his situation yet, which is why I believe that he is not suicidal.

Is our system of government actually properly designed to prevent tyranny? If so, how? If not, why not?

This is, of course, a matter of personal opinion.  My own view is that our government is set up to prevent tyranny as well as any system of government can be.  However, there is no way to set up a system of government that can absolutely prevent tyranny if enough of the people want tyranny and if they continue to want it for a long-enough period of time.

Our system of government makes it very hard to institute a tyranny.  The main way in which it does this is through separation of powers.  Even if a president wanted to establish a tyranny (like many conservatives think President Obama does/did) it would be practically impossible to do so unless Congress consented.  Because of our system of separation of powers and checks and balances, the president cannot simply make laws by issuing decrees.  We can see how hard it is to tyrannize Americans when the supposedly tyrannical President Obama cannot even enact minor gun control measures because Congress opposes him so strongly.

While our government is set up in a way that makes tyranny difficult, it does not and cannot prevent it completely.  Imagine that Donald Trump gets elected with strong support from the people.  If the people continue to support him two years later, they could pack Congress with his supporters.  At that point, Trump could, if he wanted to, get Congress to start passing laws that are meant to give him more power.  If we, the people, do not disagree with these laws, we will not protest and we will not vote the pro-Trump people out of office.  Over time, they will get stronger and stronger and could (if we continue to support them) take so much power that President Trump could become a tyrant.  (This is, of course, very speculative as I have no real evidence that Trump really wants to become a tyrant or that the American people would let him.  Instead, I am trying to point out that our system of government cannot prevent tyranny if the people support the tyranny strongly enough.