What is femininity as a cultural construct?

Introduction

Femininity is a construct influenced by cultural attitudes and shaped by historical and ideological forces. However, unlike masculinity, in which boys become detached from their mothers and feminine influences and learn to be men, femininity results from both nature and nurture, as little girls usually derive their first feminine ideas from their mothers. Patriarchal social structure has been dominant throughout history, with specific places and times adhering to different ideas of femininity. Despite the fact that some countries have been deemed more feminine than others, the dominant male power structure is usually in effect. Women’s ideas about their own femininity develop within and in response to a system of male dominance.

While feminism seeks the social, economic, and political equality of women and men, femininity describes qualities associated with being female. Traditionally, these qualities have been viewed as weakness, passivity, and submissiveness. Research indicates that from the earliest societies into the twentieth century, feminine
gender roles were specifically different from masculine roles, with the weight of that tradition increasing year by year. A clear influence on American ideas of femininity in the twentieth century was the nineteenth-century Victorian distinction between the public and private spheres. The domain for most women at that time was the home; the love and devotion with which they ministered their duties to husband and family constituted a feminine ideal. Women were praised for the gentle and refined manner in which they nurtured and guided their families, thus becoming “angels” in their homes.

However, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the New Woman began to undertake activities in the public sphere, including education, jobs, and the freedom to pursue, even in the face of condemnation, her idea of femininity. In the 1920s, women called flappers continued an assault on society’s conservative feminine ideal by wearing shorter skirts, bobbing their hair, wearing makeup, and participating in somewhat scandalous activities. With the passage of time, ideas of femininity became even more contradictory. Feminine icons in the 1930s films, playing to a mostly female audience, depicted a silky, slender sexuality that represented a shift in ideal femininity. Moreover, during World War II, with men fighting abroad, the picture of Rosie the Riveter cheerfully assured citizens of the United States that women’s femininity would not prevent them from doing a man’s job. In the twenty-first-century United States, historical gender roles continue to influence society even as many women defy them and seek to define what femininity means to them as individuals.

Status

Further complicating the feminine ideal for women is the bombardment of images in advertising, films, popular music, the fashion industry, books, television, and magazines. Each one imparts to women the femininity required to attract men or to be a superb mother. Also, feminine stereotypes of extreme dimensions of body height and thinness—largely unattainable—strongly influence women, often having a dramatic effect on a woman's body image and causing some women to diet rigorously and even develop serious eating disorders. Beauty products have presumed a connection with femininity and, along with the fashion industry, have redefined the concept. Cosmetics and the latest fashion advertisements assure women that using such products will make them beautiful, stylish, and ultrafeminine. Tanning lotions and beds, piercings, implants, cosmetic surgeries, and feminine hygiene products are all proclaimed as necessities for an ideal femininity. These products cost women hefty sums of money and present health risks from infections, chemical reactions, botched surgeries, and cancer.

In considering the effects of femininity on feminism or vice versa, some women claim feminism, which includes struggling desperately to be successful in the business world, has been detrimental. Some argue that women with families, determined to “do it all,” or at least prove their worth to the world, who put in long hours at work and even longer hours at home after work experience burnout and a hardness that keeps any desire for femininity at bay. Some women, perhaps with less invested in feminism, see no contradiction between feminism and femininity, insisting that femininity is actually a form of empowerment. Others, however, including author Laura Kipnis, view the two as incompatible. She reasons that as the radical, strident devotees of the women’s movement of the 1970s moved into the 1980s, the movement began to lose steam and fall away from the mainstream. Feminists retreated to academic settings and publishing, leaving the remainder of women susceptible to the appeals of advertising. While feminism is an attempt to gain equality with men, femininity seeks an advantage for women by relying on their “ideal” female qualities to attract and influence men. In other words, feminism remained less important to most women than their own femininity.

Bibliography

Barry, Kathleen, and Daniel Walkowitz. Femininity in Flight: A History of Flight Attendants. Durham: Duke UP, 2007. Print.

Blaise, Mindy. Playing It Straight: Uncovering Gender Discourse in the Early Childhood Classroom. New York: Routledge, 2012. Digital file.

Driscoll, Catherine. Girls: Feminine Adolescence in Popular Culture and Cultural Theory. New York: Columbia UP, 2013. Digital file.

Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. New York: Norton, 2001. Print.

Mac an Ghaill, Maírtín, and Chris Haywood. Gender, Culture, and Society: Contemporary Femininities and Masculinities. New York: Palgrave, 2007. Print.

Mead, Margaret. Male and Female. New York: HarperPerennial, 2001. Print.

Milestone, Katie, and Anneke Meyer. Gender and Popular Culture. Malden: Polity, 2012. Print.

Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women. New York: HarperPerennial, 2002. Print.

How was the novel One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich received by those in power in the USSR in 1962?

Solzhenitsyn wrote this novel, an account of the life of a prisoner in a Stalinist gulag, at a fortunate time. Khrushchev, who had privately denounced Stalin in the late 1950s, publicly embarked on a de-Stalinization campaign in 1961. This encouraged Solzhenitsyn to submit his manuscript, written in 1958-59, to the editor of Novy Mir. Knowing the subject matter to be controversial because it depicted abuses in the Stalinist prison system, the editor, Alexander Tvardovsky, managed to get a meeting with Khrushchev. Khrushchev approved publication of the book in hopes that it would help him gain support for his de-Stalinization efforts. Because of Khrushchev's endorsement, the book received a high level of publicity and was translated and sent to Western countries. It became a Soviet bestseller when it appeared in late 1962 and received positive reviews in Pravda and other Russian outlets. 

Although the book primarily gained approval for its political content, which happened to align with Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalinist policies, its writing reflected the clear, down-to-earth style of socialist realism favored by communists as easy to understand by the common person. 

Later, as Khrushchev faced challenges from Soviet purists, Communist hardliners increasingly attacked the book as straying too far from Communist principles, noting for instance that the book was too universal and not tied enough to communism to be truly an example of socialist realism. But in 1962, with Khrushchev's support, the book was well-received by those in power.

Do you watch reality television? If so, which one and why?

I personally do not watch reality television, and television in general, very often. However, on the rare occasions where I do watch reality television, I like to watch shows related to business and entrepreneurship. For example, I like to watch "The Apprentice" (both the US and UK version) and "Shark Tank."

Give the fact that I have studied business and that I am an aspiring entrepreneur, I feel that I can gain more value from these shows in comparison to other reality shows out there. On top of that, I just flat out enjoy watching people working on business projects. I particularly like watching "Shark Tank" since it gives me a glimpse of what to expect when I present to potential investors. 

I hope that this helps you with your research!

What qualities does the knight possess in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales?

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, the knight's tale is the first we read. As one might expect, the knight is the epitome of courtly honor and nobility, since he represents the noble class. Despite his high class status, the knight is depicted as modest. Moreover, he's shown to be courageous, as he's honorably fought for king, country, and Christianity all over the world. All in all, the knight fulfills the classic definition of chivalry, as he's brave, principled, and devoted to a moral code of honor. Unsurprisingly, the tale he tells us is one of courtly love, one of chivalry's highest ideals. As such, the knight's story is an extension of his honorable character, and so there are few (if any) surprises in the poem's inaugural tale. 

Where was the Civil War fought?

The Civil War was mostly (except for some naval engagements) fought in the continental United States, in what military historians divide into two "theaters" of war. The first, in the east, consisted primarily of the Union's attempt to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, Virginia. For this reason, a disproportionate amount of battles were fought between Washington, D.C. and Richmond, along what is today the I-95 corridor. Two Confederate invasions of the North resulted in the battles of Antietam and Gettysburg, and fighting also took place in the Shendandoah as well as the James River peninsula in 1862. 

The western theater consisted first of Union attempts to control the major river complexes before cutting off Confederate control of the Mississippi. After this effort was completed at the siege of Vicksburg, Mississippi, the theater shifted to Georgia, and later through the Carolinas with General William Sherman's march. The war was also fought along the coast of the South, as the Union tightened its grip on the Confederacy by taking one port town after another, most of which were heavily fortified. 

What is a quote from Animal Farm by George Orwell about how the building of the windmill will benefit the industrialization of Animal Farm?

The animals hope the windmill will make life easier.

Snowball has great things in mind for the windmill. He tells the animals that it will give them electricity and make their work easier. The farm has always been “old-fashioned” with “only the most primitive machinery.” Snowball’s vision is to bring the farm into the industrial age.

The animals had never heard of anything of this kind before … and they listened in astonishment while Snowball conjured up pictures of fantastic machines which would do their work for them while they grazed at their ease in the fields or improved their minds with reading and conversation. (Ch. 5)

Animal Farm is supposed to be a place of leisure and luxury in Snowball’s vision. The animals can sit back and relax while their stalls are lighted and warmed, and their work will be made easier by machinery. Napoleon pretends to be skeptical of the idea at first, urinating on the plans.

Besides Napoleon, not all animals are completely in favor of the windmill because it seems a fool’s business.

The whole farm was deeply divided on the subject of the windmill. Snowball did not deny that to build it would be a difficult business. Stone would have to be carried and built up into walls, then the sails would have to be made and after that there would be need for dynamos and cables. (Ch. 5)

The windmill is a boon to the pigs, though, because it gives the animals a goal to focus on and keeps them busy. As long as they can believe in the windmill, they will work hard and not think too much about what is really going on. It is a rallying point, and the pigs can claim that it is under attack or destroyed to keep the animals in a constant state of working on it.

What is the relationship between eyewitness testimony and memory?

Introduction

Knowledge of how the memory process operates has been applied to the analysis of eyewitness testimony to assess the likelihood that a witness is correct in making an identification. The task of eyewitness identification depends on the three stages of the memory process: encoding, storage, and retrieval. The last stage, retrieval, can be divided into two parts: recall and recognition. Each of these stages is subject to the influence of several factors that may contribute to error in the process.

Encoding is the stage of acquiring information. In the case of eyewitness identification, it is the sighting of a person during an event. The circumstances of the event will affect the ability of a person to encode information, including the facial appearance of another person. A short period of viewing time, poor lighting, greater distance, and an obtuse angle of view will reduce the observer’s ability to acquire information about appearance. Any distractions present will reduce the attention paid to the face of the person and reduce the facial information encoded. If there are other people present, they serve as distractions. If a weapon is present, it attracts the attention of the observer and reduces the attention to faces. This phenomenon is called the weapons effect. If the weapon is used in a threatening manner, it will be likely to attract even more attention and further reduce the encoding of facial detail. Highly salient features of the face may dominate the encoding of the face. For example, a prominent scar may attract attention and reduce the attention to other facial details. When this happens, the witness may easily mistake another person with a similar scar for the original person, even though other features are different. Only information that is encoded can be retained and retrieved later, so the encoding stage sets the limits for later identification.

Once information is encoded, it must be stored until it is retrieved for use. One is not constantly aware of the information one has; such information is held in storage until one retrieves it. The brain holds information by some electrochemical process. It is not known exactly how it works, but it is clear that the storage stage of memory is not passive and inert like a videotape. Memories can change while they are stored. The memory may change in two ways: it may fade, or it may be distorted. Information fades away over time. This effect of time on memory is one of the oldest findings in the field of psychology, documented by Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885. His findings indicate that memory fades rapidly at first and continues to fade over time at a reducing rate. This fading could be evidenced by loss of details or a less accurate recall of details. Sometimes witnesses may still believe that they recall a face, but the memory has really changed so that their identification is inaccurate.

The other major factor affecting memory during the storage period is interference. Events that occur during the storage period may change the memory without the awareness of the witness. A witness may be exposed to information after an event and, without knowing it, incorporate that information into the memory of the event. One example of this type of effect is called unconscious transference. This occurs when a person seen in one setting is remembered as having been in another. Sometimes a witness will mistakenly identify someone seen in another setting as the one who committed a crime. The witness has, without knowing it, transferred the memory of the face of the innocent person into the crime memory.

The third stage of memory is retrieval. Witnesses may be asked to retrieve information by either recall or recognition. Giving a description of a person is an example of free recall. There are no external stimuli from which to select; witnesses simply retrieve whatever information they can. In the case of recognition, the witness is asked to identify someone from a photograph, in person, or from a group of photographs (a photo lineup) or a group of people (a live lineup). Sometimes lineups are videotaped. Recall may be distorted by suggestive questions or nonverbal cues. Elizabeth F. Loftus reported in her 1979 book Eyewitness Testimony that when people were asked, “How tall was the basketball player?” their descriptions averaged seventy-nine inches. When they were asked, “How short was the basketball player?” they estimated sixty-nine inches. This ten-inch difference was caused simply by the change in the wording of the question.

The accuracy of a witness’s recognition in lineup situations can be greatly affected by the nature of the lineup. If a witness is asked to identify a person from a single photograph or a one-person lineup, there is a possibility of error attributable to the witness’s expectation that this must be the person or the police would not produce the person. In multiple-choice lineups, the similarity of the alternative choices to the suspect is the major determinant of error. If only one or two people in the lineup are similar to the original description of a suspect, a witness really has few choices, and the result is similar to the single-choice lineup. Witnesses may sometimes select a person in a lineup who is similar to the one seen or who looks familiar for some other reason.

Eyewitnesses and the Justice System

In some cases, the only evidence against a person accused of a crime is an identification by an eyewitness. In their 1973 book Wrongful Imprisonment: Mistaken Convictions and Their Consequences, Ruth Brandon and Christie Davies describe seventy cases in which an incorrect identification by an eyewitness led to a conviction. In 1973, after conducting his own study of the subject, New York surrogate court judge Nathan Sobel concluded that incorrect eyewitness identification led to more miscarriages of justice than all other factors combined. Because of the serious consequences of an incorrect identification and the possibility that misidentifications frequently occur, psychologists have applied their expertise in memory to the study of the factors that would affect the accuracy of eyewitness identification.

Loftus has reported a case of eyewitness testimony that illustrates one of the most important applications of the field, a criminal trial. The background to the trial began on October 12, 1977, at approximately 8:30 in the evening. Two men entered a liquor store in Watsonville, California. The first man stood directly across from a young male clerk and pointed a gun at him, demanding all the money. The second man stood four or five feet away, pointing a gun at an older clerk, who stood behind the first clerk. The first robber demanded the money from the cash register and the clerks’ wallets. As the young clerk turned to replace his wallet, he heard a shot and dove to the floor. When he looked up, the first robber was almost out the door, and the second robber stood in the doorway smiling; the older clerk lay dead on the floor. As soon as the robbers left, the young clerk hit the alarm. A security guard responded immediately, and the clerk, in a state of shock, could only say, “Two men, one with a mustache, two men, one with a mustache.”

The clerk was interviewed by police the next day, and he described one robber as a male Mexican, thirty-two to thirty-seven years old, about five feet, ten inches tall, 175 to 180 pounds, with black collar-length, unkempt hair. A composite drawing was made. During the next week, the clerk viewed two live lineups and a large set of black-and-white photographs. Two of the photographs were of a man named José Garcia. The clerk said that one of them looked similar to the robber. About a week later, the clerk viewed the set of photographs again and again said one of them was similar to the robber. Another week went by, and the clerk was shown a different set of color photographs. He picked out Garcia as “the guy; I wouldn’t forget the face.” Three days later, the clerk picked a man from a live lineup whose voice sounded like the robber. This man was an innocent police officer, so the clerk went back to the color photographs and said that Garcia was definitely the murderer.

Garcia was arrested and charged with murder and robbery. He was thirty-nine years old; he was five feet, ten inches tall, and he weighed 242 pounds. He spoke with a heavy Spanish accent and had tattoos lining both arms; his left hand was deformed from a sawblade accident.

Loftus was hired by the defense to testify about the factors that might cause the eyewitness to be inaccurate. After she was sworn in, her qualifications as an expert in eyewitness memory were presented to the court. The prosecution argued that the data from experiments only allowed general conclusions and not conclusions about the eyewitness in this case, and that experiments were not performed on real-life crimes. The judge ruled that the testimony would be heard by the jury. Through a long series of questions, the defense attorney attempted to bring before the jury the factors from the psychological research that are known to affect the ability of an eyewitness to make a correct identification. Some of the factors Loftus mentioned were the storage interval (there were several weeks between the crime and an identification), the high stress level of the witness during encoding, the possibility that the weapon used in the crime may have created a weapons focus, and the possibility that the viewing of pictures of the suspect several times before making an identification could have allowed for unconscious transference to occur.

The jury, after hearing Loftus’s expert testimony, was unable to reach a verdict. The defendant was tried again a few weeks later; the process was repeated, and again the jury could not reach a verdict, so the defendant was set free. Interviews with the jury indicated that they valued the expert testimony of Loftus in their deliberations; nine were for acquittal and three were for conviction.

The Science of Testimony

In 1900, French psychologist Alfred Binet (later famous for the development of intelligence testing) argued for the creation of a practical science of testimony. German psychologist William Stern was publishing studies of eyewitness testimony as early as 1902. In 1903, Stern testified in German courts of law as an expert on eyewitness testimony. Beginning in 1909, American psychologist Guy Montrose Whipple began a four-year series of articles in Psychological Bulletin in which he translated and interpreted European work on the subject as well as presenting his own.

Although it appeared that the field was ready to develop rapidly, it did not. Probably because most psychologists of the time focused more on theoretical issues than on applied problems and because the early psychologists working on eyewitness testimony were criticized for overgeneralization, the explosion of research on eyewitness testimony did not occur until the 1970s. Ulric Neisser, in his book Cognition and Reality: Principles and Implications of Cognitive Psychology (1976) and later in Memory Observed: Remembering in Natural Contexts (1982), presented the view that the advances in understanding human memory and social perception called for a new emphasis on observations made in a natural context. The majority of the research on memory applied to eyewitness testimony has been carried out since then.

Modern research has developed a large database on variables that affect the accuracy of an eyewitness, as well as on such issues as the best way to interrogate a witness, how to construct fair lineups, and how to help witnesses remember more accurately. A major topic of the 1980s and 1990s was the usefulness and appropriateness of the testimony of psychological experts in court proceedings. Some judges do not allow psychologists to testify about eyewitness reliability; however, other judges do allow such testimony. Psychologists disagree on whether this testimony serves a good purpose. It is clear that if testimony is given, the psychologist cannot say whether a given witness is correct or not. The psychologist may provide the jury members with information that can help them to evaluate the eyewitness testimony better. There may be scientific data about the circumstances of the case being tried that jurors do not know. Telling the jurors about the data can give them a better basis for evaluating the credibility of a witness. This can lead to improvement of the judicial process by more often convicting the guilty as well as saving the innocent.

Bibliography

Ainsworth, Peter B. Psychology, Law, and Eyewitness Testimony. New York: Wiley, 1999. Print.

Greene, Robert L. Human Memory: Paradigms and Paradoxes. New York: Psychology, 2014. Print.

Lindsay, R. C. L., et al., eds. The Handbook of Eyewitness Psychology. New York: Psychology, 2012. Digital file.

Loftus, Elizabeth F. Eyewitness Testimony. Rpt. 4th ed. Newark: LexisNexis, 2007. Print.

McCloskey, Michael, Howard Egeth, and Judith McKenna. “The Experimental Psychologist in Court: The Ethics of Expert Testimony.” Law and Human Behavior 10.1–2 (1986): 1–13. Print.

Thompson, Charles P., et al. Eyewitness Memory: Theoretical and Applied Perspectives. New York: Psychology, 2014. Digital file.

Wells, Gary L., and Elizabeth F. Loftus, eds. Eyewitness Testimony: Psychological Perspectives. New York: Cambridge UP, 1987. Print.

Wrightsman, Lawrence S. “Crime Investigation: Eyewitnesses.” Psychology and the Legal System. 6th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2007. Print.

Yarmey, A. Daniel. The Psychology of Eyewitness Testimony. New York: Free, 1979. Print.

What are some examples of literary elements being used to convey coming-of-age moments in To Kill a Mockingbird?

In her bildungsroman, Harper Lee employs literary elements in order to better convey significant moments that describe Jem and Scout's maturation. Here are examples of the use of certain literary techniques:

• In Chapter 3, after Scout pleads with her father to allow her to stay home rather than to attend school, Atticus tells her that she should try to understand her new teacher, who is unfamiliar with Maycomb and its residents. The figure of speech of climbing into another's skin—feeling like that other person—helps Scout to reach an understanding of her teacher:

"You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view—...until you climb into his skin and walk around in it."

Later, in Chapter 7, Scout uses this figure of speech as she tries to understand Jem's feelings while he attempted to retrieve his pants from the Radley yard earlier: "I tried to climb into Jem's skin and walk around in it."

• In Chapter 5, Miss Maudie describes the Radley home as "a sad house," using personification in order to convey the mood of the home and the isolation of the occupants such as Boo Radley.


• In Chapter 6, after Jem gets his pants caught on the Radley fence and must climb out of them in order to escape when Nathan Radley steps out with his shotgun, he later sneaks off the back porch where he and Scout sleep. He wants to retrieve his pants so that he will not be caught in his deception. As he returns to the porch, Scout imagines what is happening as Lee employs personification:
  

"...Boo Radley's insane fingers picking the wire to pieces; the china berry trees were malignant, hovering, alive."

• In Chapter 10, Atticus gives the children air rifles for Christmas, but he cautions them to be careful with them. He tells his children that he knows they will take aim at birds, but they should never shoot mockingbirds because they just "sing their hearts out for us" and do no harm.

"Shoot at the bluejays you want, if you can hit 'em, but remember it's a sin to kill a mockingbird."

This makes an impression upon Scout and Jem, and the mockingbird becomes a key metaphor and motif in Scout's narrative. Later, Scout recalls how Mr. Underwood uses the figurative mockingbird when he refers to the killing of Tom Robinson:

Mr. Underwood simply figured it was a sin to kill cripples.... He likened Tom's death to the senseless slaughter of songbirds [mockingbirds] by hunters and children....

• In Chapter 25, metaphor (unstated comparison) is used as Mr. Underwood has written an editorial in which he alludes to the "secret courts of men's hearts" in which Atticus had no case. "Tom was a dead man the minute Mayella Ewell opened her mouth and screamed."


• In Chapter 30, the motif of the mockingbird is again used, this time by Scout. When Mr. Tate and Atticus debate what to do about the death of Bob Ewell, the sheriff says that Boo should be left alone and not arrested. "Well, it'd be sort of like shootin' a mockingbird, wouldn't it?" Scout remarks when Atticus asks her what she thinks.

What is Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease?

Risk Factors

PMD occurs in 1 out of every 200,000 to 500,000 male newborns in the United
States. It is an X-linked disorder, predominantly affecting males who inherit it
from their mothers, who are carriers. The condition rarely affects females. For
females who carry the PLP1 gene, there is a 50 percent risk of
passing it on with every pregnancy—sons have a 50 percent chance of inheriting the
gene and having PMD, while daughters are at a 50 percent risk of being carriers.
Genetic
counseling and in utero testing are advised for those with a
family history.

Etiology and Genetics

PMD is one of the leukodystrophies, a group of inherited
and progressive metabolic diseases affecting myelination of the nervous system and
the development of white matter in the brain. Each disorder has a separate gene
abnormality that affects a different enzyme (protein). In PMD, the defect is in
the PLP1 gene, caused by a point mutation (substitution of a
single AT or GC base), which results in misfolding of the proteolipid protein 1
and DM20 protein, or a duplication of the entire gene, causing overexpression of
the protein. These mutant proteins are toxic to the oligodendrocyte cells that
make myelin.

Myelin constitutes the myelin sheath, which is a fatty covering surrounding
axons in the central and peripheral nervous systems and acts as an electrical
insulator, allowing impulses to be transmitted quickly along the nerve cells.
Without myelin, impulses leak out and nerves cannot function normally. Normal
myelination is a step-by-step, ordered process that begins at about five months
gestation and continues until a child is two to three years old. In PMD, myelin
simply never develops, resulting in permanent hypomyelination and axonal
degeneration, primarily in the subcortical region of the cerebrum, cerebellum,
and/or brain stem. This prevents impulses from being transmitted from neuron to
neuron and causes a range of neurological and motor dysfunctions. It is now known
that duplication of the PLP1 gene accounts for 50 to 75 percent
of PMD cases.

The gene encoding the PLP protein is located on the long arm of the X chromosome at band Xq22 and is about 17 kilobases in size, consisting of seven exons and six introns. Two transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms (Isoform 1 and Isoform DM-20) have been identified. The normal PLP protein is a four-transmembrane domain structure that correlates well with one exon of the gene, except at the C terminal end, and binds strongly to other copies of itself.

Many mutations in the PLP1 gene have been reported. Molecular
analysis of the gene revealed a variety of mutations, deletions, and duplications,
including two mutations in the 5 untranslated region, missense mutations in exon
2, and an A-to-T transition in exon 4 leading to an Asp-to-Val substitution at
residue 202. Exonic mutations tend to be more severe than simple point mutations.
Forms of the disorder include the classical X-linked PMD, a severe acute infantile
(connatal) PMD, and an autosomal dominant late-onset PMD.

Symptoms

Symptoms of PMD are typically progressive and can appear in the first year of
life. In the case of connatal PMD, symptoms can begin in infancy. The first
symptom in infants is usually involuntary oscillatory movements of the eyes
(nystagmus) and may be concomitant with labored and noisy
breathing (stridor) and lack of muscle tone/floppiness (hypotonia). Involuntary
muscle spasms (spasticity) and associated muscle and joint stiffness develop. With
time, other symptoms become evident, such as impaired ability to coordinate
movement (ataxia), developmental delays, loss of motor function and
head/trunk control, and deterioration of intellectual abilities.

Screening and Diagnosis

DNA-based testing can be used to diagnose PMD in symptomatic patients, as well
as in utero, and to determine carrier status in family members. Identification of
pathologic mutations and copies of the PLP1 gene is the
definitive test, using sequence analysis and quantitative polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) or fluorescence in situ hybridization
(FISH) methods, respectively. Pathological signs of dysmyelination can be examined
using magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), once a child is one to two years old
when white matter pathways in the brain are maturing and hypomyelination can be
detected.

Treatment and Therapy

PMD cannot be cured and there is no effective treatment. Currently, treatment
is symptomatic and supportive, but medications are available to alleviate
stiffness or spasticity and to control seizures. Cell-based therapies are
being investigated, including transplantation of a functioning neuregulin gene
into unmyelinated nerve cells, which may reprogram cells to produce myelin and the
use of human adult-derived glial progenitor cells as vectors.

Prevention and Outcomes

There are no means of preventing PMD, but genetic counseling and testing is
available for couples who have the PLP1 gene mutation. The
prognosis for patients with PMD varies by the severity of mutation and form of
PMD, with survival as short as early childhood and as long as into the
sixties.

Bibliography

Hannigan, Steve,
and National Information Centre for Metabolic Diseases. Inherited
Metabolic Diseases: A Guide to 100 Conditions. Abingdon:
Radcliffe, 2007. Print.

Martenson, Russell.
Myelin—Biology and Chemistry. New York: CRC, 1992.
Print.

Mori, Tatsuo, et al. "Age-Related Changes in
a Patient with Pelizaeus-Merzbacher Disease Determined by Repeated
1H-Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy." Journal of Child
Neurology 29.2 (2014): 283–88. Print.

"Pelizaeus-Merzbacher Disease."
Genetics Home Reference. National Library of Medicine, 4
Aug 2014. Web. 8 Aug. 2014.

"PLP1." Genetics
Home Reference. National Library of Medicine, 4 Aug. 2014. Web.
8 Aug. 2014.

Sims, Katherine B. Handbook of
Pediatric Neurology. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 2014.
Print.

Southwood, Cherie M., et al. "Potential for
Cell-Mediated Immune Responses in Mouse Models of Pelizaeus-Merzbacher
Disease." Brain Sciences 3.4 (2013): 1417–44.
Print.

Swaiman, Kenneth F., Stephen Ashwal, Donna
M. Ferriero, and Nina F. Schor. Swaiman's Pediatric Neurology:
Principles and Practice. 5th ed. Edinburgh: Elsevier, 2012.
Print.

Vinken, Pierre, G.
W. Bruyn, Christopher Goetz, et al. Neurodystrophies and
Neurolipidoses. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1992.
Print.

Why were the metaphysical poets given that name?

It was Samuel Johnson who first referred to certain 17th-century English lyric poets as “metaphysical.”  The group is most readily defined by such writers as John Donne, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert, and Henry Vaughan.  Johnson’s appellation stuck as an appropriate moniker due to the heavy use of metaphysical conceits in these poets’ works – at a time when poetry was mostly composed of mythological allusions and natural imagery, these artists were focusing on more spiritual motifs, weaving religious and philosophical contemplations into their works.  They examined the soul as subject, from the perspectives of classical philosophy and also from a more occult spiritual viewpoint.  Johnson described the movement as being characterized by a “discordia concors” -- the use of seemingly incongruous images and comparisons which nonetheless work together to create an almost ethereal emotive image and challenge the reader to view the subject from a wholly new perspective.  A popular example is the extensive comparison of two lovers’ souls to a draftsman’s compass in John Donne’s “A Valediction:  Forbidden Mourning:”

If they be two, they are two so
As stiff twin compasses are two,
Thy soul the fixed foot, makes no show
To move, but doth, if the other do.
And though it in the center sit,
Yet when the other far doth roam,
It leans, and hearkens after it,
And grows erect, as that comes home.

Metaphysics is the philosophy of human experience; it attempts to understand the nature of our existence and the limitations of our perception.  The metaphysical poets struck out to address these questions in verse.  In addition, metaphysical poetry is generally very witty and clever, taking an intellectual approach to often very sensual themes.  “The Flea,” also by John Donne, is a prime example, in which he writes,

Oh stay! three lives in one flea spare
Where we almost, yea more than married are.
This flea is you and I, and this
Our marriage-bed and marriage-temple is

Here the speaker is attempting to convince his new bride to sleep with him, though she has reservations.  He uses a flea that has already bitten them both as a persuasion –  within the creature their blood is already mixed, and they are therefore already as one.

So we can see that these poets, though they were only loosely affiliated in real life, separated themselves from the standard of their era with their intellectual, philosophical contemplations on love, God, the human condition, the true nature of things, and the relationship between all of these ideas.  They were bold and unpredictable in their metaphors and sought to explore the spiritual in verse.

Do you think Dally, Ponyboy and Johnny are heroes according to your definition in The Outsiders?

A hero is a complex concept.  I think of a hero as someone who helps someone else, often without regard to his or her own personal safety.  By that definition, Johnny, Dally, and Pony were definitely heroes when they saved the kids from the fire.

Pony was surprised to hear himself and the others referred to as heroes.  As far as he was concerned, they were just doing what had to be done.  The kids were in danger, and they had to act.  You do not just leave a bunch of kids to burn to death.  However, from the onset they were thought of as heroes by onlookers.

"I swear, you three are the bravest kids I've seen in a long time. First you and the black haired kid climbing in that window, and then the tough-looking kid going back in to save him. Mrs. O'Briant and I think you were sent straight from heaven.  Or are you just professional heroes or something?"  (Ch. 6)

Johnny, Pony, and Dally were greasers, and greasers were supposed to be hoodlums.  They were supposed to be fighting and robbing liquor stores, not saving kids.  However, that is not what it was about for them.   They were heroes because they stood up for each other.  Even before the church fire, Johnny was a hero for saving Pony’s life.  Bob was drowning him, and Johnny saved him.  He could have been injured or killed.  He thought nothing of himself or consequences.  He just acted.

Sometimes heroes face consequences for their actions.  By saving those kids, Johnny was seriously injured and died as a result of his injuries.  He could have gone to jail for killing Bob even if he hadn’t broken his back.  Pony, who was also on the run, was found.  Yet they acted because they had to.

What are some challenges faced by managers while carrying out planning in organizations?

Managers encounter challenges presented by the dynamic nature of organizations. The internal and external organization environment is ever changing. This situation requires the manager to make plans that are flexible enough to work in the prevailing environment, by anticipating future events and changes. The challenge, in this case, is to ensure that the plan can adapt to a variety of environments.

Human and environment interactions are complex in nature with human activities initiating a chain of reaction within the environment, which may be positive or negative. Thus, it is a challenge for managers to make plans that are sustainable and acceptable to the different parties with regards to these interactions.

Managers are expected to make decisions and plan for future activities regardless of the information available to make the decisions. Basically, in situations where information is insufficient or unavailable, the managers are forced to make assumptions and base their decisions on these assumptions.

Planning is a key function of resource sharing within an organization, which is also a key source of conflict among the different entities. Managers are required to allocate resources within the organization and address the conflicts which will likely arise due to a number of allocations made.

What have Americans done to change the world?

Americans have done many things to change the world. One thing Americans have done is to explore space. We were the first to land an astronaut on the moon. We have conducted many scientific experiments in space. These experiments have influenced us on earth. One experiment dealt with how tissues regenerate in space, and how we can apply that knowledge here on earth.

We also impacted the world with the American Revolution. The Declaration of Independence has been used as a model by other nations as they fought for their freedom. Other nations have also modeled their governmental system after our system that was created by the Constitution. For example, the French Revolution was modeled after the American Revolution.

Americans have influenced businesses and industry. Henry Ford used the assembly line to manufacture cars. Bill Gates and Steve Jobs influenced the technology world. The Wright Brothers influenced the aviation industry. All of these ideas revolutionized their respective industries.

American entertainers and athletes have brought enjoyment to people’s lives throughout the world. Jerry Seinfeld is a famous comedian. Bruce Springsteen is a famous musician. Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong influenced the world of jazz. LeBron James is a famous basketball player.

American presidents have provided tremendous leadership for other leaders to model. Abraham Lincoln guided us through the Civil War. Franklin D. Roosevelt was instrumental in helping the Allies win World War II by developing many war policies and working closely with the Allied leaders. George Washington showed the world how to guide a new country through the beginning years of a new plan of government.

American scientists have discovered vaccines for diseases. Jonas Salk discovered the polio vaccine. Maurice Hillman developed the mumps vaccine. These vaccines have allowed many people to rest easier knowing their kids would be safe from these diseases.

Americans have made many contributions that have made lasting changes to our world.

If the pH of a solution is 4.66, what is the `[H3O^+]` ?

The pH of a solution is a measure of the hydronium ion concentration. The hydronium ion is represented as `H_3O^+` . Mathematically, the relationship between hydronium ion concentration and pH can be written as:

`pH = -log_(10) [H_3O^+]`

This equation can be further written as:

`[H_3O^+] = 10^(-pH)`

In this case, pH = 4.66.

Therefore, the hydronium ion concentration can be calculated by substituting the value of pH in the above equation.

That is, `[H_3O^+] = 10^(-4.66) = 2.19 xx 10^(-5) M`

Thus, the given solution contains 2.19 x 10^-5 M hydronium ions.

We can also calculate the pOH of the solution by using the relation: 

pH + pOH = 14

This equates to: pOH = 14-4.66 = 9.34

We can also calculate [OH^-] by using the relation:

`pOH = -log_(10)[OH^-]`

Solving this equation, we get [OH^-] = 4.57 x 10^-10 M.

Hope this helps. 

What are the three basic properties of a language?

A simple definition of language is a symbolic system of communication.  Language can refer to spoken or written human language but also to forms of communication such as body language or even math or music. Language in this broad sense does not need to be restricted to human communication, but can also refer to auditory, physical and chemical communication between animals and even plants. 

Many linguists have developed sets of properties that define or describe what constitutes a human language, and these lists vary from scholar to scholar. However, most seem to settle on six, rather than three, properties of human languages: displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, discreetness, duality and cultural transmission.

Displacement means that a language can refer to times and places other than the present. Most animal languages are believed to lack this property. For example, animals are able to convey messages to each other or us through body language, such as a dog wagging his tail, but this message implies that the dog is happy right now. He has no way of conveying that he was happy yesterday, or that he enjoyed that walk in the park last week. 

Human languages have arbitrariness, meaning that the symbols we use have no direct connection to what they represent. The word home is not intrinsically tied in anyway to what a home is, rather the sounds that make up the word home were arbitrarily designated that meaning. Of course, there are instances where words are not entirely arbitrary, the obvious example being onomatopoeia, where words resemble the sound they refer to (for example, the word buzz). 

Productivity refers to the ability of human language to grow and adapt with human learning and culture. It means we have the ability to develop new symbols or combinations of symbols (here we usually mean words and phrases) to represent new ideas or technologies. This allows us to communicate effectively even as we experience changes in the way we think or experience the world.

Discreetness is the property of each sound in the language being unique and having different meaning or interpretation. For example, the sounds made by the letters M and N are similar, but despite the similar sound, we know that the words mate and Nate have different meanings. In animal languages a general sound, such as a grunt or bark, may have a particular meaning, but different animals and even the same animal might not "pronounce" that symbolic sound using the exact same combinations of sounds every time. In human language specific combinations of sounds have specific meanings.

Duality is the nature of human language as comprised of a set of unique sounds, which alone are meaningless, but that are combined to form symbols with specific meanings. The letter L and the sound it makes has no meaning in itself. Neither do the sounds of I, F and E, but when we combine those particular sounds in that order we form the world LIFE, which does have symbolic meaning in English. Duality then is the merging of this set of meaningless sounds with a code of combinations that we have given meaning to.

And finally, human languages all must have cultural transmission, they must be passed from generation to generation. While we may have evolved to learn languages easily, the meanings of the sounds we make are not passed down in our genetics, we must learn the symbols from our parents or those around us. For a human language to effectively communicate, it must be shared among people so that they can understand one another and it must be taught to children so they can understand the symbology of their ancestors, communicate with one another, and use the same symbology to pass their knowledge on to new generations.

How does Edith Wharton show the readers that Lily Bart was responsible for her own end in The House of Mirth?

Every chapter of The House of Mirth presents one more more situations in which the character of Lily Bart is juxtaposed to a diatribe that requires either immediate action, or preparation. The lack of action and lack of preparation that we consistently see coming from Lily's part are partly responsible for the events that she ends up experiencing. In chapter 2, Lily is described for doing this very thing. Her social circle says that Lily is someone who 

works like a slave preparing the ground and sowing her seed; but the day she ought to be reaping the harvest she over-sleeps herself or goes off on a picnic

Therefore, lack of action and lack of initiative are the two demons that bring Lily down, and which she needs to fight against.

Just to name some examples, here are some things that Lily could have done, but just never did in the novel:

• She refuses to engage in Dorsett's plan to expose Bertha, who humiliated her. 


• She refuses to pay attention to Rosedale when she had a chance


• She refuses to settle for Selden because he is not rich


• She misses her chance to impress Percy Gryce 


• She is unable to plan her expenses ahead


• She is not willing to give up a certain expectation of luxury in her life

It is only in the end that she finally learns her lesson and becomes more proactive about life, even paying off her debt right before her end comes. 

However, if we revert back to chapter 3 of the novel, we get a good insight as to why Lily is the way that she is. In chapter 3, Wharton explains that Lily was 19 years-old when she had to "revisit her view of the universe." Lily finds out the hard way that her family has come to financial ruin in a way so fast that it shocks her.  From living in a busy, sophisticated and elegant home, she now has to learn to live without those luxuries. The shock may have been so intense, and her upbringing so devoid of reality, that even as an adult Lily cannot manage to put her life together. 

...she was not made for mean and shabby surroundings, for the squalid compromises of poverty. Her whole being dilated in an atmosphere of luxury; it was the background she required, the only climate she could breathe in.

Luxury and beauty were part of there imprinting. She was born that way, raised that way, and encouraged to remain that way. It was impossible for her to act differently; she had a tremendous weakness of character when it came to the trappings of society, and she was too inactive and unwilling to learn from the cues to do anything productive about it. Therefore, Lily is a victim of herself and her circumstances. Still, she could have avoided a lot of her own pain if she had only taken a proactive and sensitive approach.

What memoirs would Jem have had after the night of finding gifts in the tree and meeting with Tom Robinson's family and Robert Ewell?

Jem is so surprised and grateful to find trinkets in the tree that he actually writes a letter of thanks to the giver of those gifts. Jem is heartbroken when he discovers that Mr. Radley has filled up the hole in the tree with cement. At the end of this chapter (7), Scout can hear Jem crying. This has clearly affected Jem. We cannot be sure that he knows that Boo Radley had been giving the gifts. However, it is possible. In any case, had Jem written a memoir about this event, he probably would have expressed how excited he was to find new surprises in the tree. It is somewhat magical, like finding presents under the Christmas tree. And if he knew this was Boo's way of reaching out to someone, he would have written about it as a turning point in how he understood Arthur Radley.

In Chapter 26, Jem and Dill go with Atticus to Tom's house. Atticus breaks the news to Helen that Tom has been killed. They see Helen collapse in grief. Of the three children, Jem was the one most disappointed when Tom was convicted. Seeing Helen's grief probably added to that disappointment and frustration. Had he written a memoir about this event, especially as an older, wiser man, he would probably express his dissatisfaction with the racist element in Maycomb and how it led to a wrongful conviction and a family losing a husband and a father.

In W. D. Wetherell's "The Bass, the River, and Sheila Mant," what causes the narrator to feel ashamed?

In W. D. Wetherell’s short story “The Bass, the River, and Sheila Mant,” we encounter a fourteen-year-old male narrator who, fully inflamed with the onset of puberty, is smitten with the beautiful but aloof seventeen-year-old Sheila Mant.

One of the most obvious (and sometimes debilitating) effects of puberty is a kind of overblown self-consciousness. Suddenly we become very AWARE of ourselves, scrutinizing what we look like, what we sound like, and how we are perceived by others. The narrator, affected by a burning crush on Sheila, wants to approach her, but he lacks confidence, and this makes his feel uncertain when he attempts to make contact:

It was late August by the time I got up the nerve to ask her out. The tortured will-I’s, won’t-I’s, the agonized indecision over what to say, the false starts toward her house and embarrassed retreats—the details of these have been seared from my memory, and the only part I remember clearly is emerging from the woods toward dusk while they were playing softball on their lawn, as bashful and frightened as a unicorn. 

Notice the diction (word choice) Wetherell uses to emphasize the narrator’s diffidence (lack of confidence): nerve, tortured, agonized, indecision, false, embarrassed, retreat, bashful, and frightened.

He also uses a very effective metaphor, comparing himself to a unicorn at the end of the passage. Imagine how you would stare at a unicorn if one suddenly came walking out of the woods—that’s how self-conscious he feels as he walks toward Sheila and her family. He doesn’t feel that he will be accepted or judged worthy of Sheila’s attention.

Part of the narrator’s problem here is that he has chosen to pursue a very difficult objective: Sheila is older, beautiful, and already on the radar of the college boys who row past her while she’s sunbathing. It isn’t likely that he is going to be someone she is particularly interested in. He senses that, but pursues her anyway. He is persistent but not able to avoid the feeling that he will probably fail—hence his feelings of inadequacy and potential failure.

What is art therapy?

Overview

According to the American Art Therapy Association (AATA), art therapy is based on knowledge of human developmental and psychological theories and is an effective treatment for people with developmental, medical, educational, social, or psychological problems. The theory behind art therapy is based partially on the belief that creativity and healing may come from the same place. According to experts, art therapy is not merely arts and crafts, or purely recreational; it is multisensory and teaches people to use objects purposefully and to communicate their pain with the outside world.

Although human beings have used art as a mode of expression for thousands of years, art therapy was not recognized as a distinct profession until the late 1930s, when Margaret Naumberg, now considered the founder of art therapy, advocated using art as a gateway to the subconscious in conjunction with free association and psychoanalytic interpretation.

Artist Adrian Hill took credit for inventing the term “art therapy” in 1942.
While recovering from tuberculosis in a sanitarium, he felt
that his own foray into art led to his emotional recovery. Introducing painting to
his fellow patients, he found that they used artistic expression not only for
enjoyment but also for expressing fears and emotions.

Recognizing that artwork could be useful in helping patients express internal conflicts, the psychiatric staff at the Menninger Clinic in Kansas began to employ art as therapy. The first journal in the field, Bulletin of Art Therapy, began publishing in 1961, and the AATA, a national professional organization that regulates educational, professional, and ethical standards for art therapists, was established in 1969.

Mechanism of Action

There are two different poles of art therapy: art psychotherapy and art as therapy. Proponents of art as therapy suggest that the process of creating art itself is curative and that verbal reflection, discussions, or interpretations about the art itself are not necessary. Advocates believe that creative activity increases brain levels of serotonin, a hormone associated with feelings of well-being, and gives rise to the alpha brainwave patterns typically seen during periods of relaxed alertness.

Uses and Applications

Art psychotherapy proponents believe that artwork is most effective when used as a tool to elicit feelings, fears, and fantasies, which can then be worked through in traditional talk therapy. Regardless of their orientation, most contemporary art therapists integrate a variety of approaches, individualizing the treatment to best meet the needs of a specific client.

Special techniques are often particularly useful in helping people express
their feelings, develop social skills, solve problems, reduce anxiety, or
resolve emotional conflicts. In the unstructured approach, patients might select
from a variety of materials and media (such as paint, pastels, and clay) and use
them however they choose, allowing unconscious material to rise to the surface.
Then the therapist might ask the client to draw a family picture, which can help
elicit complex family dynamics such as unhealthy patterns of relating or poor
communication skills. Groups of people who share similar issues, such as having
had cancer, might work together to create a collage or mural that can then be used
to stimulate discussion of coping strategies.

Art therapists can practice alone or may be part of a treatment team that includes physicians, psychologists, nurses, social workers, counselors, and teachers. Art therapy, conducted in individual or group sessions, can be used with people of all ages, races, and ethnic backgrounds who have any one of a number of physical and emotional disorders. The adult coloring book, a loose form of art therapy, has become a mainstream trend.

Choosing a Practitioner

Art
therapists must possess a minimum of a master’s degree and
undergo a supervised practicum and a postgraduate internship before being
certified for practice. Art therapists are registered (the credential ATR) or
board certified (BC), or both, and practice in a variety of settings, including
community mental health centers and psychiatric clinics; hospitals, rehabilitation
facilities, and hospices; correctional facilities; nursing homes and senior
centers; schools and early intervention programs; disaster relief centers;
homeless shelters; and drug and alcohol rehabilitation programs.

Safety Issues

There are no known safety concerns with art therapy.

Bibliography

American Art Therapy Association. http://www.arttherapy.org.

Art Therapy Credentials Board. http://www.atcb.org.

Canadian Art Therapy Association. http://canadianarttherapy.org/.

Craig, Claire. Exploring the Self through Photography: Activities for Use in Group Work. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley, 2009. Print.

Edwards, David. Art Therapy. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2004. Print.

King, Juliet L. Art Therapy, Trauma, and Neuroscience: Theoretical and Practical Perspectives. New York: Routledge, 2016.

Malchiodi, Cathy A. The Art Therapy Sourcebook. Rev. ed. New York: McGraw, 2007. Print.

Miller, Caroline. Arts Therapists in Multidisciplinary Settings. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley, 2016. Print.

Richardson, Carmen. Expressive Arts Therapy for Traumatized Children and Adolescents: A Four-Phase Model. New York: Routledge, 2016. Print.

Rubin, Judith Aron. The Art of Art Therapy: What Every Art Therapist Needs to Know. New York: Brunner, 2011. Print.

What is the conflict in Bud, Not Buddy?

As in almost every story about an orphan trying to survive during the Great Depression, the conflict in Bud, Not Buddy is one of the orphan vs. society (or the main character of Bud vs. society).  This conflict is apparent from the very beginning of the novel.  First, Bud deals with the negative atmosphere of the orphanage.  After Bud is put into a foster home, Bud deals with the abuse from the Amos family.  After escaping from the Amos family, Bud sets off onto an adventure to find out more about his original parents.  Bud visits a Hooverville and even tries to steal a car.  Although there are characters who help Bud (such as the librarian and the chauffeur, Mr. Lefty Lewis), the world seems to be set against Bud until he finds his grandfather, Herman E. Calloway, and the band.  Although Calloway puts up a bit of a fight in regards to accepting Bud, the band generally gathers around Bud and makes Bud feel like he truly belongs.  This can be considered the resolution to the conflict.  Bud’s crowning glory arrives when he is given a recorder and then a saxophone.  As an accepted member of the band, Bud is no longer alone in the world.

Why does Paris want to marry Juliet so soon?

We never learn explicitly why Paris wants to marry Juliet so soon.  In Act 1, Scene 2, Juliet's father tries to persuade him to wait and pursue in her two more years, when she'll be nearly sixteen.  But Paris says, "Younger than she are happy mothers made" (1.2.12).  But Capulet feels that marrying too young can be detrimental to a girl, so he encourages Paris to court her and try to win her heart.  Her feelings, he says, will certainly play a role in whether or not he gives his consent Paris's suit later on. 

Later on, after Tybalt's death at Romeo's hands, Capulet is willing to broker the marriage between his daughter and Paris because he wants to pull her out of her mourning and give the family a happy occasion to celebrate.  He proposes the following Thursday, just three days away, and Parris replies, "My lord, I would that Thursday were tomorrow" (3.5.32).  Even a few days away seems like too long for him to wait!  Perhaps he simply knows what he wants and doesn't need more time to think.  Perhaps he wants to snatch Juliet up before some other lover presents his suit.  We really never know for sure why he's in such a hurry.

What are some literary devices used in Hamlet, Act 1 Scene 5?

When the ghost of old King Hamlet charges his son to exact revenge on his killer, he calls Claudius, his brother and murderer, a "serpent," thus associating him via allusion with the sinful serpent in the Garden of Eden (1.5.45).  Not only is this an example of an allusion to the serpent in the Bible, but it is also a metaphor.

Further, he compares his former union with Gertrude, his wife, to a "celestial bed" and her new union, with Claudius, to "garbage" (1.5.64-65); this, too, is metaphor.  He also calls the poison Claudius used, "swift as quicksilver," employing a simile (1.5.76).  About Gertrude, again, old Hamlet charges his son to "Leave her to heaven / And to those thorns that in her bosom lodge / To prick and sting her" (1.5.93-95).  Thus, he compares the actions for which she will feel guilty to thorns via another metaphor.  There is no need for Hamlet to exact revenge on her because her guilt with accomplish it for him.  

What is your impression of Ozymandias as a king?

As described in the poem, Ozymandias was a tyrant who did not even make a pretense of caring about the needs of his people. His facial expression, his hand, his heart, and his voice all point to the fact that he was a selfish oppressor.

His facial expression was a "frown, and wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command." This expression shows him as angry and unkind toward those he ruled over. A sneer is an expression showing contempt, meaning that he held his subjects to be inconsequential, not worth caring about, and deserving only of his scorn. The coldness of his command shows he had no empathy toward the plight of the people he ruled. He was self-absorbed.

His hand figuratively mocked his subjects. Again, this shows he scorned them. Whatever needs or wants they had were not to be entertained; his needs and wants were always supreme. To mock a powerful person can be considered brave and may have a purpose in bringing about change through satire, but to mock a needy or oppressed person is low indeed and displays a serious lack of morality. He was cruel.

His heart figuratively fed on his subjects. This shows he was a predator; he sucked the life from his subjects, perhaps requiring back-breaking labor for his building projects and the lion's share of anything they produced. That his heart fed on his subjects could also imply that he demanded their loyalty, praise, and adoration. Not being content with their obedient service, he demanded worship as well. He was abusive.

His voice, which we hear through the inscription on his pedestal, instructs the "Mighty" to look on his works and despair. This suggests that he sought to go beyond the bounds of his own kingdom—for no one in his own kingdom was mighty except him—to the surrounding region, contemplating conquest. The despair other kingdoms might feel would be inspired by their knowledge that, if he desired, he could subjugate them as well. Having everything at his disposal in his own land, he was not above desiring what lay beyond his borders. He was greedy.

From the evidence of his statue and inscription, Ozymandias was a self-absorbed, cruel, abusive, and greedy king.

`m = -7/9` find the inclination 'theta' (in radians and degrees) of the line with slope m.

You need to use the following formula to evaluate the inclination angle theta, such that:

`tan theta = m`

Replacing-`7/9` for m,  yields:

`tan theta = -7/9 => theta = tan^(-1)(-7/9) => theta = -tan^(-1) (7/9)`

`theta = -37^o 50' 49''`

The answer in radians can be calculated such that:

`theta = (-37^o 50' 49''*pi)/(180^o)`

`theta =- 0.660` radians

Hence, evaluating the angle theta in degrees and radians yields `theta = - -37^o 50' 49''` or` theta` = - 0.660 radians.

What is the significance of Sugarcandy Mountain in Animal Farm?

Sugarcandy Mountain is what the animals call heaven in Animal Farm. The raven Moses tells the other animals stories about it. It floats up in the sky, and is where animals go when they die. It is a paradise: "In Sugarcandy Mountain it was Sunday seven days a week, clover was in season all the year round, and lump sugar and linseed cake grew on the hedges," Moses explains. He flees with Mrs. Jones when the animals take over the farm.

The pigs at first work hard to convince the animals that Sugarcandy Mountain isn't real. But a few years later, Moses reappears and now the animals, hungry and overworked, are more willing than ever to hear his talk of Sugarcandy Mountain. 

Oddly enough, the pigs don't chase Moses away. They scoff at his words but also give him a beer allowance every day.

Moses is clearly supposed to be a Christian priest, telling, from a communist point of view, false stories about heaven so that the animals will bear their miserable lot in the hope of an afterlife. It is significant that the pigs encourage Moses to stay: it shows how the farm is becoming more corrupt and the pigs more like their former human masters.

What is galactokinase deficiency?

Risk Factors

Galactokinase deficiency is an autosomal recessive disease. It manifests if the patient’s parents each carry one copy of the mutated GALK1 gene, even if they do not show signs and symptoms. Both sexes are equally affected. The familial risk factor is increased in consanguineous marriages. The incidence of galactokinase deficiency has been found to be higher (approximately 1 per 10,000) in Roma populations of eastern Europe with endogamous traditions. In the United States, the estimated incidence is 1 per 50,000–100,000 live births.

Etiology and Genetics

Galactokinase deficiency is associated with mutations in the GALK1 gene, located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 17, from base pair 71,265,612 to 71,272,874. The gene contains eight exons and spans approximately 7.3 kilobases (kb) of genomic DNA. It encodes the enzyme galactokinase (EC 2.7.1.6), which phosphorylates galactose to galactose-1-phosphate. Phosphorylation is the first of three enzymatic steps in galactose metabolism. Galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (EC 2.7.7.10; GALT) and UDP-galactose-4-epimerase (EC 5.1.3.2; GALE) are responsible in this order for the next two metabolic steps. Inborn metabolic errors linked to impaired activity of each enzyme lead to galactosemia. Galactosemia linked to galactokinase deficiency results in the least severe symptoms compared to classic galactosemia linked to GALT deficiency (with life-threatening signs and symptoms) and galactosemia linked to GALE deficiency (the rarest kind, which causes damages to tissues and organs).

More than twenty-three different mutations within the GALK1 gene have been identified in galactokinase deficiency. Most of these are missense (a codon for one amino acid is substituted by the codon for a different amino acid) or deletion (part of a chromosome or sequence of DNA is missing) mutations that cause changes in the stability and activity of the enzyme. Private mutations, found only in the kindred of patients, are not uncommon in galactokinase deficiency. A founder mutation was identified in Roma patients as the P28T mutation, in which proline at position 28 is substituted by threonine.

Symptoms

The most consistent symptoms of galactokinase deficiency include congenital cataracts in infants and presenile cataracts in adults. The disease also results in galactosemia and galactosuria. Pseudotumor cerebri (idiopathic intracranial hypertension) is rare but consistently reported in galactokinase-deficient patients. Both cataract and pseudotumor cerebri can be ascribed to accumulation of galactitol, a product of an alternative route of galactose utilization, which results in osmotic swelling; both resolve with therapy. A variety of clinical abnormalities have also been reported, but a causal relationship with galactokinase deficiency could not be determined.

Screening and Diagnosis

Galactokinase deficiency is rare, and the diagnosis is not immediately apparent. Unlike classic galactosemia, galactokinase deficiency does not present with severe manifestations; thus, most cases are diagnosed after the development of lens opacity in the infant. Because the disease is rare, genetic screening is not usually done. The diagnosis is established by demonstrating deficient activity of the galactokinase enzyme in erythrocytes.

Treatment and Therapy

The only treatment for galactokinase deficiency is to restrict galactose (and sugars containing galactose units, such as lactose) in the diet. This is usually effective in reversing symptoms.

Prevention and Outcomes

The development of early cataracts in homozygous affected infants is fully preventable through early diagnosis and treatment with a galactose-restricted diet. Ideally, screening programs in genetically at-risk populations would allow prevention of galactokinase deficiency. In reality, such programs are not usually available, and the disease is not identified until cataract and blindness develop.

According to some studies, depending on milk consumption later in life, heterozygous carriers of galactokinase deficiency may be prone to presenile cataracts at twenty to fifty years of age. The general outcome for patients with galactokinase deficiency is positive, and with dietary precautions the patients lead a normal life.

Bibliography

Bayarchimeg, Mashbat, et al. "Galactokinase Deficiency in a Patient with Congenital Hyperinsulinism." JIMD Reports. Ed. Verena Peters. Vol. 5. Heidelberg: Springer, 2012. 7–11. Print.

Berry, Gerard T. "Classic Galactosemia and Clinical Variant Galactosemia." GeneReviews. Ed. Roberta A. Pagon et al. Seattle: U of Washington, Seattle, 1993–2014. NCBI Bookshelf. Natl. Center for Biotechnology Information, 3 Apr. 2014. Web. 23 July 2014.

Bosch, A. M., et al. “Clinical Features of Galactokinase Deficiency: A Review of the Literature.” Journal of Inherited Metabolic Diseases 25.8 (2002): 629–34. Print.

Kalaydjieva, Luba, et al. “A Founder Mutation in the GK1 Gene Is Responsible for Galactokinase Deficiency in Roma (Gypsies).” American Journal of Human Genetics 65.5 (1999): 1299–1307. Print.

Novelli, Giuseppe, and Juergen K. V. Reichardt. “Molecular Basis of Disorders of Human Galactose Metabolism: Past, Present, and Future.” Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 71.1–2 (2000): 62–65. Print.

Segal, Stanton, and Gerard T. Berry. “Disorders of Galactose Metabolism.” The Metabolic and Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease. Ed. C. R. Scriver et al. 7th ed. Vol. 1. New York: McGraw, 1995. 967–1000. Print.

Singh, Ramandeep, et al. "Galactokinase Deficiency Induced Cataracts in Indian Infants: Identification of 4 Novel Mutations in GALK Gene." Current Eye Research 37.10 (2012): 949–54. Print.

What are five examples of couplets in Act II, Scene 2 of Romeo and Juliet?

Act II, Scene 2, often referred to as the balcony scene, of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet is considered one of drama's most popular and famous scenes. In this scene, Romeo climbs over a wall into the Capulet orchard to catch another glimpse of Juliet. He has known the girl for only a few minutes but is already head over heels in love with her. They exchange words of love and Romeo proposes marriage, which Juliet, despite the bitter feud between her family and his, accepts.

A couplet is simply two consecutive lines of poetry that rhyme. There are several examples of couplets in this scene and throughout the play. On a side note, notice that only those who are wealthy or of noble birth speak in couplets. The servants never do. Of course, Romeo and Juliet come from two of the most prominent families in Verona, so they often speak in couplets.

A good first example, and one which reinforces Shakespeare's theme of dark and light, is uttered by Romeo as he stands watching Juliet from below her balcony. He says in lines 22-23,

Would through the airy region stream so bright
That birds would sing and think it were not night.

He often refers to Juliet as the light and brightest thing around. He compares her to torches and the sun, and here he says her eyes would light up the night.

Sometimes, because Shakespeare wants to show how in tune Romeo and Juliet are to each other, he has them speak together in a rhyming couplet, as in lines 74-75:

Romeo: Therefore thy kinsmen are no stop to me.

Juliet: If they do see thee, they will murder thee.

At one point Juliet tries to slow things down and urges Romeo to leave. She believes they may be rushing into things and wants some time for each to think. She attempts to wish him good night in lines 130-131:

Good night, good night. As sweet repose and rest
Come to thy heart as that within my breast.

Romeo, of course, is not to be put off and asks her to marry him. At this point she is briefly interrupted by the Nurse and says, in lines 143-144

I hear some noise within. Dear love, adieu.—
Anon, good nurse.—Sweet Montague, be true.

The two exchange goodbyes a few times and at one point Romeo uses a metaphor comparing himself to a schoolboy who loves to leave his books and go to his girlfriend in lines 166-168:

Love goes toward love as schoolboys from their
books,
But love from love, toward school with heavy looks.

When they finally do part company, Juliet recites possibly the most famous couplet in the entire play. She says, in lines 199-201:

Good night, good night. Parting is such sweet
sorrow
That I shall say “Good night” till it be morrow.

The last couplets of the scene are in the final lines, after Juliet has exited. Romeo tells the audience in an aside that he is too excited to sleep and needs to speak to Friar Laurence right away. In lines 202-205 Romeo says:

Sleep dwell upon thine eyes, peace in thy breast.
Would I were sleep and peace so sweet to rest.
Hence will I to my ghostly friar’s close cell,
His help to crave, and my dear hap to tell.

What is meningitis?

Causes and Symptoms

The meninges is the three-layered covering of the spinal cord and brain. The layers are the outer dura mater, inner pia mater, and middle arachnoid. Meningitis
is the inflammation or infection of the arachnoid and pia mater. It is characterized by severe headaches, vomiting, and pain and stiffness in the neck. These symptoms may be preceded by an upper respiratory infection. The age of the patient may affect which signs and symptoms are displayed. Newborns may exhibit either fever or hypothermia, along with lethargy or irritability, disinterest in feeding, and abdominal distension. In infants, examination may find bulging of the fontanelles (the soft areas between the bones of the skull found in newborns). The elderly may show lethargy, confusion, or disorientation. As pressure in the skull increases, nausea and vomiting may occur. With meningococcal meningitis, a rash of pinpoint-sized
or larger dots appears.

Most cases of meningitis are the result of bacterial infection. These cases are sometimes referred to as septic meningitis. The bacteria invade the subarachnoid space and may have traveled from another site of infection, having caused pneumonia, cellulitis, or an ear infection. It is unclear if the bacteria make their way from the original area of infection to the meninges by the bloodstream or the lymphatic system. Once they have entered the subarachnoid space, they divide without inhibition since there is no impediment posed by defensive cells. In other words, the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) contains very few white blood cells to inactivate the bacteria. More rarely, some bacteria may be introduced into the area by neurological damage or surgical invasion.

The most common cause of
bacterial meningitis in adults and older children is meningococcus (Neisseria meningitidus). It is a diplococcus that typically does its damage inside the cell. The incidence of meningococcal meningitis is two to three cases per 100,000 people per year, and it most often affects schoolchildren and military recruits. Haemophilus influenzae is the most common culprit infecting babies between two months and one year of age. Complications or residual effects often follow bacterial meningitis. These may include deafness, delayed-onset epilepsy, hydrocephalus, cerebritis, and brain abscess. In addition, for several weeks after resolution of the disease the patient may experience headaches, dizziness, and lethargy.

Aseptic meningitis is meningitis attributable to causes other than bacteria. These causes include neurotropic viruses, such as those that cause poliomyelitis or encephalitis; other viruses such as those that cause mumps, herpes, mononucleosis, hepatitis, chickenpox, and measles; spirochetes; bacterial products from brain abscesses or previous cases of bacterial meningitis; and foreign bodies, such as those found in the air or chemicals, in the CSF. Most cases of aseptic meningitis are viral in origin. The signs and symptoms are similar to those of bacterial meningitis. Onset is usually gradual, with symptoms starting mildly. The slight headache becomes worse over the course of several days, the neck becomes characteristically stiff, and photophobia (dislike of bright light) occurs.

Tuberculous meningitis is different from most other forms of meningitis because it lasts longer, has a higher mortality rate, and affects the CSF less. It mostly strikes children and is usually the result of a bacillus infection from the respiratory tract or the lymphatic system that has relocated to the meninges. When the bacilli are translocated to the central nervous system, they form tubercles that release an exudate. If tuberculous meningitis is left untreated, death may occur within three weeks. Even with treatment, it may result in neurologic abnormalities.

Cryptococcal meningitis is a fungal infection most often caused by Cryptococcus neoformans, a strain of Cryptococcusfungus found in the soil worldwide. Although rare in the United States, it affects one million people around the world each year, causing 625,000 deaths annually. Patients with risk factors for this form of meningits include those with AIDS, cirrhosis, diabetes, leukemia, lymphoma, sarcoidosis, and those who have received organ transplants. Those with weakened immune systems are also more likely to be affected.

Treatment and Therapy

If meningitis is suspected, the first testing procedure is an examination of the CSF. To obtain CSF, a
lumbar puncture, sometimes called a spinal tap, is made. Opening pressure, protein and glucose concentrations, total cell count, and cultures of microbes are determined. In cases of meningitis, the CSF is almost always cloudy and generally comes out under higher-than-normal pressure. An elevated white blood cell count in the CSF would be one indication that the patient has bacterial meningitis; another would be lowered serum glucose but slightly raised protein concentration, especially albumin. About 90 percent of bacterial meningitis cases show gram-positive staining. The examination of this slightly atypical fluid, along with presenting symptoms and signs, gives the diagnostician some confidence in diagnosing meningitis accurately. Further cultures and a repeat puncture are necessary to pinpoint the kind of meningitis and to check the effect of the treatment.

Bacterial meningitis should be treated promptly with antibiotics specific for the causative bacteria. The success of treatment is contingent on the magnitude of the bacterial count and the quickness with which the bacteria can be controlled. Virtually all bacterial cases are treated with ampicillin or penicillin. Cases aggressively treated with very large doses of antibiotics are the most successful. If antibiotics do not destroy the areas of infection, surgery should be considered. Surgery is especially effective if meningitis is recurrent or persistent. Viral meningitis may be treated with adenine arabinoside if the cause is herpes simplex. No medication will kill other viruses causing the infection. The condition usually resolves itself in a few days, even without treatment. When necessary, supportive therapy should be employed, including blood transfusions. Young children with open fontanelles often undergo subdural taps to relieve pressure caused by CSF buildup.

Mortality rates in meningitis vary with age and the pathogen responsible. Those suffering from meningococcal meningitis (without overwhelming bacterial numbers) have a fatality rate of only 3 percent. Newborns suffering from gram-negative meningitis, however, have a 70 percent mortality rate. In addition, the younger the patient, the more likely the incidence of lasting neurological damage.

There are two basic ways to prevent meningitis: chemoprophylaxis for likely candidates of the disease and active immunization. Those exposed to a known case are usually treated with rifampin for four days; rifampin is especially useful in inactivating H. influenzae. Active immunization is suggested for toddlers eighteen to twenty-four months of age, especially for those in situations where there is a high risk of exposure (such as day care centers).

A study published in the April 4, 2013, issue of the
New England Journal of Medicine found that patients with cryptococcal meningitis who were treated with a combination of amphotericin B and flucytosine had a 40 percent reduced risk of death from the disease than those who were treated with amphotericin B alone.

Bibliography

American Medical Association. American Medical Association Family Medical Guide. 4th rev. ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.

Bloom, Floyd E., M. Flint Beal, and David J. Kupfer, eds. The Dana Guide to Brain Health. New York: Dana Press, 2006.

Ferreiros, C. Emerging Strategies in the Fight Against Meningitis. New York: Garland Science, 2002.

HealthDay. "Combo Therapy Helps Knock Out Fungal Meningitis." MedlinePlus, April 3, 2013.

McCoy, Krisha. "Bacterial Meningitis (Spinal Meningitis)." Health Library, October 31, 2012.

MedlinePlus. "Meningitis." MedlinePlus, May 13, 2013.

Meningitis Research Foundation. Meningitis Research Foundation: Meningitis & Septicaemia, 2013.

Shmaefsky, Brian. Meningitis. 2d ed. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2010.

Tunkel, Allan R. Bacterial Meningitis. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001.

Wilson, Michael, Brian Henderson, and Rod McNab. Bacterial Disease Mechanisms: An Introduction to Cellular Microbiology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Zieve, David. "Meningitis—Cryptococcal." MedlinePlus, October 7, 2012.

How does being called "boy" help Dexter decide to quit caddying in "Winter Dreams"?

In "Winter Dreams," Dexter's being called "boy" in part causes him to stop caddying because he decides that he's too old to caddy any longer. At least, that's what he tells others around him, like his family. However, Dexter has become smitten by Judy Jones, and it is clear that she is of a much higher social class than Dexter is. Dexter is ashamed of his lower-class status, and being called "boy" reminds him that he is just a caddy, expendable in the eyes of the rich men playing golf on the range. He is so overwhelmed by his infatuation with Judy that Dexter decides that the only way to get over it is to resign suddenly from his position as caddy; in other words, a sudden resignation would "cancel out" the sudden infatuation. Dexter's being called "boy" catapults him into his resignation.

I am writing an essay about the topic of isolation in Frankenstein. My first paragraph would be on how Victor isolates himself due to his pursuit...

Isolation is the perfect theme to write about for this book, as it certainly does come up multiple times and for each of the characters you mentioned. The trick about writing a thesis is to make sure that the examples you are providing all have something in common and while each of these do support the same theme, there needs to be more than just that to draw them together.

Let's look at the cause of the isolation for each character. Frankenstein isolates himself while pursuing his ambitions. Walton isolates himself while pursuing his ambitions (although not as much as Frankenstein does). The creature is forced into isolation because of how people react to him. By examining the reason behind each of their isolations, we see that Frankenstein and Walton are fairly similar.

So, how do you arrive at a thesis for a paper with these three examples? Consider something like, "Walton and Frankenstein isolate themselves as a result of their ambitious pursuits, and the creature's isolation is imposed on him; however, the effect of isolation on each of these characters is a negative one." That allows for you to move beyond simply noting each one is an example isolation and to talk about the consequences of it.