How does glucagon influence glucose concentration in the blood?

Glucagon is a hormone that increases the level of glucose in the plasma. When the glucose levels are too low (which is called hypoglycemia), glucagon will be secreted by pancreas. (Insulin does the opposite – the pancreas secretes it when glucose levels are too high, i.e. hyperglycemia.)

How does glucagon work? The liver takes in the secreted glucagon, where it induces a signal cascade (a series of chemical signals that provoke a chain reaction). The purpose of this signal cascade is to increase the production of cyclic AMP, which activates protein kinase A. Protein kinase A will inhibit lipogenesis (production of fat) and glycolysis (the conversion of glucose to pyruvate, which reduces the overall amount of glucose), and instead it will induce gluconeogenesis (production of glucose). That glucose will then be transported across the plasma membrane of the liver cells and into the bloodstream.

What is cholecystitis?

Causes and Symptoms

There are basically two types of cholecystitis, calculous and acalculous, both of which could present as acute or chronic inflammation of the gallbladder. The calculous type is seen in 90 percent of cases and is caused by an obstruction of the neck of the gallbladder by gallstones, which are usually composed of cholesterol. The cholesterol stones may block the gallbladder neck and cause an acute attack of cholecystitis, or they may act as chemical irritants and result in chronic inflammation. About 10 percent of cases of cholecystitis are not the result of gallstones and are hence called acalculous. A variety of factors may precipitate an acute attack, such as sepsis, severe trauma, severe burns, and even the postpartum state. Approximately 75 percent of patients with acute cholecystitis are women.

Acute cholecystitis may first come to a medical attention in the emergency room, with the patient complaining of severe, progressive upper-right quadrant pain (biliary colic), which may be associated with nausea, vomiting, and fever and could radiate to the back. Jaundice (yellowish skin) may or may not be present, depending on the degree of obstruction of the gallbladder neck. The attack usually follows a large, fatty meal and can last one to three days. Chronic cholecystitis is usually more insidious in onset and may be relatively asymptomatic; it also may be associated with a vague sensation of indigestion, which eventually progresses to mild, right-upper abdominal distress or long-standing pain.

Diagnosis is usually made with an ultrasound of the abdomen that demonstrates calcified gallstones. Obstruction of the gallbladder neck cannot be visualized, however, and thus requires another imaging test called a hepatobiliary iminodiacetic acid (HIDA) scan. An elevated white blood cell count is also seen in most cases.

Treatment and Therapy

Most acute attacks of cholecystitis may resolve spontaneously, but they should always be considered for surgery, as removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy) is the only definitive therapy for the disease. The gallbladder is usually removed using laparoscopic surgery, wherein small incisions are made in the abdomen through which surgical instruments and a fiber-optic camera are passed. In some cases, particularly if the gallbladder is highly inflamed, an open procedure is necessary. In acute attacks, it may also be necessary to maintain adequate nutrition and fluid replacement. A low-fat diet is usually recommended for these patients.

In those patients who decide against surgery, there is a risk of recurrent infections, pain, and even perforation of the gallbladder; the perforation of the gallbladder has a 15 percent mortality rate. Perforation of the gallbladder occurs in less than 3 percent of cases of acute cholescystitis.

Bibliography:

American Medical Association. American Medical Association Family Medical Guide. 4th ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.

Frazier, Margeret Schell, and Jeanette Wist Drzymkowski. Essentials of Human Diseases and Conditions. 5th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Saunders/Elsevier, 2012.

Longo, Dan, et al., eds. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. 18th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011.

Longstreth, George F. "Chronic Cholecystitis." Medline Plus, February 27, 2011.

Mayo Clinic Staff. "Cholecystitis." Mayo Clinic, September 1, 2011.

Porter, Robert S., et al., eds. The Merck Manual Home Health Handbook. 3d ed. Whitehouse Station, N.J.: Merck, 2011.

Rakel, Robert E., ed. Textbook of Family Practice. 6th ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 2002.

What are some similarities between Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson?

Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson were two notable figures of the American Revolution. Though Paine was a little bit older than Jefferson and had been born and raised in England, the two had very similar political attitudes and intellectual aspirations. 

Both Paine and Jefferson were writers and were heavily influenced by Enlightenment philosophies. In fact, Paine's Common Sense, which advocated for the establishment of an independent America, laid the way for Jefferson's Declaration of Independence. Both believed that it was unjust for the American colonies to be exploited for taxes and resources for the benefit of the British monarchy.

Both were also heavily involved in the relationship growing between the newly established United States and the nation of France. After the American Revolution, Paine lived in France and published many papers on the political upheaval now going on there. Jefferson, too, spent time in France, but was more focused on establishing trade between the two nations rather than become involved in the French Revolution.

Outside of their political work, Paine and Jefferson shared some similar qualities. Both were rather ambiguously religious, having been born into the Anglican tradition but being accused of atheism later in life. Rather than being staunch believers one way or the other, both were keenly aware of the role religion played in society and questioned the ways in which it might be used to overpower the people. Both were also awarded some amount of status for the fact that they were educated, white men of English descent.

What are some bad things Snowball does to harm Animal Farm?

Generally, Snowball appears to have the animals' best interests at heart and works hard to better the lives of all the animals. This desire is displayed in his indefatigable attempts at establishing various committees to educate the animals and ensure a better system for all. It is also reflected in his plans to build a windmill.

There are, however, some of his actions which can be deemed bad for the farm. Firstly, as a pig, he freely indulged in the privileges that the pigs claimed to the exclusion of the other animals. The milk and the windfall apples, for example, were to be equally divided according to the principles of Animalism. Snowball accepted these without protest. If he truly had all the animals' interests at heart, he would have objected against this obvious irregularity and demanded that the right thing be done. He did not. This neglect makes him equally guilty of creating an exclusive class. In this sense, he is just as conniving as Napoleon and his cronies.

The mystery of where the milk went to was soon cleared up. It was mixed every day into the pigs' mash. The early apples were now ripening, and the grass of the orchard was littered with windfalls. The animals had assumed as a matter of course that these would be shared out equally; one day, however, the order went forth that all the windfalls were to be collected and brought to the harness-room for the use of the pigs. At this some of the other animals murmured, but it was no use. All the pigs were in full agreement on this point, even Snowball and Napoleon. Squealer was sent to make the necessary explanations to the others.

Secondly, although it was decided that the pigs should perform mental labor and not perform any physical work, Snowball failed to also point out the unfairness of such an approach. He should have played an active role in the performance of physical tasks. Instead, he accepted the role of seniority as easily as the other pigs and supervised and managed. Once again, the principle of equality was ignored.

The pigs did not actually work, but directed and supervised the others. With their superior knowledge it was natural that they should assume the leadership.

Furthermore, Snowball allowed propaganda and deceit to flourish, especially during the early days after the Rebellion. When Squealer went around to spread his lies, which obviously were to the pigs' advantage, he did not intervene. He was, therefore, just as deceitful and manipulative as the other pigs. Clearly, even though things were unfair or unjust, he did not do anything as long as he could benefit. It is this reticence that makes Snowball as complicit in the abuse of the general animal population as any of the other pigs.

From the above it should be pertinently clear that Snowball played a role in ensuring that the pigs develop a stature and position of superiority and exclusive privilege. Since he benefited as much as the other pigs, he deliberately neglected to apply checks and balances to ensure that the maxim "All animals are equal" was adhered to.

Snowball's indifference, in this regard, created an environment in which the pigs' demands and needs came first and laid the foundation for the later abuse and exploitation of the other animals by their supposedly superior comrades. This, ultimately, is what ruined everything for the general animal populace.

In Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, what things does the Friar do that are illegal or frowned upon?

The most important thing the Friar does is the central event of the play: he marries Romeo and Juliet. The two lovers are from feuding families, the Montagues and the Capulets, and thus their parents would never approve of their relationship. This is why the act of marrying the two is illegal. Lord Capulet would have to agree to allow his daughter to marry Romeo for the wedding to be legal. In fact, Lord Capulet is involved in negotiations with Paris to marry Juliet even as she marries Romeo behind his back. The Friar agrees to undertake this fateful marriage because he hopes, as he tells Romeo in Act II, to turn "your households' rancour to pure love." In other words, he hopes that he might end the feud between the Capulets and Montagues through the marriage. In a sense, this illegal act works, because the two families are reconciled when they find their children dead. The Friar also acts illegally when he gives Juliet the sleeping potion, and possibly when he sends a message to Romeo, who has been banished for the death of Tybalt. He confesses all of this after Romeo, Juliet, and Paris are found dead at the Capulet family crypt. The Friar acts illegally in the hopes that his actions might end the bloody feud that has gripped Verona.

Why was the killing of Harrison Bergeron so significant? Did Harrison have to die for the sake of society?

In Kurt Vonnegut's 1961 short story "Harrison Bergeron," the title character is murdered at the end of the story. The killer is Diana Moon Glampers, the Handicapper General responsible for ensuring that everyone in the United States is equal to one another. Harrison's death is significant because it shows the measures an authoritarian government will take to ensure its own survival.

When Harrison takes over the television studio, he states his intent to overthrow the government that has tried to dull his intelligence, strength, and even good looks. He encourages the musicians and ballerinas in the studio to cast off their handicaps. His murder at the end of the story comes as a surprise to most first-time readers, but is not illogical considering the government he lives under.

Each handicap, whether Harrison's three-hundred pounds of extra weight, or his father's ear radio, represents a level of oppression. When nothing works to dull Harrison, the government employs its most extreme handicap: death. Though execution of dissidents is common in authoritarian societies, Vonnegut used Diana Moon Glampers as the executioner rather than a nameless police officer or soldier. By having the person responsible for handicapping American citizens pull the trigger, Vonnegut makes Diana Moon Glampers a symbol for the entire government.

How did The Women Rights Movement strengthen the Civil Rights Movement?

The Women's Rights Movement of the 19th and 20th centuries challenged the idea that a person's value was determined by their biology. One of the major changes resulting from the Women's Rights Movement was with regard to the attitude of what was "natural" for a man or woman and what their capabilities in life were. Traditionally, woman's place was "in the home," and this attitude was supported by a belief that biology prevented women from doing good work outside of the home. The opinions and efforts of women were valued less than those of men, and any agency a woman had was seen to come from her relationships with the men in her life. 

Suffragettes like Elizabeth Cady Stanton challenged the governmental and societal structures which served to oppress women and devalued their personhood. Women and People of Color faced similar limitations on their rights and lives-- both were discriminated against in the types of work available to them, both were considered to be biologically inferior (to a white-male archetype,) and depending on the location may not have had a right to vote. The Women's Rights Movement began to challenge the status of the white-male as an ideal form of personhood and agency. Much of the work done by women fighting against sex- or gender-based discrimination laid the way for racially or ethnically motivated discrimination to be challenged and outlawed.

Though great strides have been made, neither the Women's Rights or Civil Rights Movements are finished. Even in the present-day in the United States, people are discriminated against on the basis of their biology. For example, Women of Color earn significantly less in the work place as compared to their white-male counterparts. In 2013, Latina and Hispanic women earned, on average, only 54% of what a white man earned for performing the same job. We must not fool ourselves into thinking that just because we talk about the Women's and Civil Rights Movements as having occurred in history that equality, regardless of biology, has been achieved.

What is virulence?

Definition

The term “virulence” means the disease-producing (pathogenic) capabilities and mechanisms of a microorganism and also
the inherent potential of an infection to cause harm.

Disease-Causing Agents

The human body is populated by a multitude of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
parasites. Most pathogens, except viruses, are harmless, and some are even
beneficial. These microorganisms live, feed, and grow in or on the body, the
host. Microorganisms that take from the host or change it in some
way, that contribute nothing to the host’s survival, and that harm the host by
causing infection, are known collectively as pathogens or parasites. These
abilities, mechanisms, and potentials define a pathogen’s virulence.

Infection virulence is characterized by its effect on the host and is measured by degrees. For example, an infection that causes death is considered more virulent than an infection that causes disability. Mortality rate is another way to measure the virulence of an infection.

The properties and mechanisms of virulence in many pathogens are well known to medical biologists. By understanding the capacity of virulence in microorganisms, medical biologists can estimate the likelihood of a particular microorganism causing infection, the rate at which an infection will likely spread through a population, the capacity of a pathogen to invade and damage the host, the severity and impact of an infection on individual hosts and entire populations, and the mortality rate of an infection. However, a complete understanding of virulence in many pathogens remains elusive because of the evolution of pathogens, both outside and inside the human body, and because of the many factors involved in virulence.

Virulence Factors

Virulence factors refer to the properties and mechanisms that enable a microorganism to enter a host and cause harm. Virulence factors operate at the molecular and genetic levels. A single pathogen may have one or many virulence factors, and there are huge variations in virulence among pathogens. Some bacteria species, for example, engender different diseases by combining different virulence factors. Some of the more common, and easy-to-understand, virulence factors are discussed here.

Adherence. To cause infection, pathogens must first adhere to certain cells on the surface of tissue
in the host. If they do not adhere, they will be flushed away by mucus and other
fluids that naturally rid the body of foreign invaders. Bacteria, in
particular, have evolved mechanisms that allow them to attach themselves to host
cells. Dental plaque, for example, is caused by bacteria with the power to stick
fast to the teeth and gums.

Colonization. Bacteria and viruses are most harmful when they work cooperatively, or colonize, as all bacteria or all viruses, in huge numbers called colonies. These colonies provide benefit among members, but they harm the host.

Adaptation. Some pathogens produce specific enzymes (proteins that speed up chemical
changes) in response to their environment that enable them to flourish and produce
infection. Some enzymes cut into cells, allowing the pathogen to enter. Some
dissolve the glue between cells, allowing the pathogen to spread. Others protect
the pathogen from the body’s natural defenses. For example, the fungus
Cryptococcus gatti (which causes a deadly but rare lung
disease) develops a thick outer coating after it enters the lungs. Also, some
bacteria can produce enzymes to counter the effects of antibiotics;
this ability of bacteria is known as antibiotic resistance.

Toxicity. Some pathogens manufacture toxins (poisons) inside the body that immobilize, damage, or destroy
vital components or functions of the host, allowing the pathogen to thrive. The
agents that cause cholera, botulism, anthrax, and tetanus are examples of this
type of pathogen. Toxins produced by bacteria outside the body cause many of the
diseases commonly known as food poisoning, including
Salmonella infection and Escherichia coli
infection.

Virulence factors in pathogens and the virulence of infections are parts of the equation only. The final part involves factors within the host.

Host Factors

Virulence involves a complex interaction of the pathogen, infection, and host. Various factors inherent in or acquired by the host influence the effects of a pathogen or infection. Host factors include age, gender, genetic makeup, nutritional status, immune system status, and acquired immunity.

The status of the immune system is particularly important. Persons (hosts)
with weakened immune systems, such as those with cancer or
human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection; the morbidly obese;
and drug addicts, are susceptible to microorganisms not normally harmful to
healthy people. People with weakened immune systems also contract more infectious
diseases, experience more severe symptoms, have more chronic infections, and heal
more slowly from injuries and wounds than do healthy people.

Acquired immunity is powerful protection against infection. Humans acquire immunity, or resistance, to some pathogens and infections through previous exposure to them. That exposure can come from contracting an infectious disease or through acquired immunological resistance (vaccination). After acquiring immunity, the immune system becomes stimulated when encountering certain pathogens, and it can reduce the virulence of an infection to such low levels that no symptoms appear.

Impact

Virulence from both pathogens and infections has affected the course of civilizations. The great plague epidemics in Europe in the Middle Ages and the smallpox epidemics that decimated Native American peoples are two examples of the power of virulence.

On the positive side, the systematic study of virulence has contributed to
advances in the biological sciences and to a better understanding of pathogens and
infections. Researchers have unraveled the genomes of many pathogens, and based on
an understanding of the makeup and evolution of pathogen virulence, medical
biologists are finding ways to manage virulence by selecting for mild strains of
infection, thus forcing the more virulent strains into extinction. Also, specific
antigens (substances that stimulate the immune response) are
being created for active immunity against some of the most dangerous
pathogens.

Bibliography

Dieckmann, Ulf, et al., eds. Adaptive Dynamics of Infectious Diseases: In Pursuit of Virulence Management. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. An introductory text for infectious disease researchers.

Ewald, Paul W. “The Evolution of Virulence and Emerging Diseases.” Journal of Urban Health 75 (1998) 480-491. Provides insights into the evolution of virulence.

Madigan, Michael T., and John M. Martinko. Brock Biology of Microorganisms. 12th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2010. This text outlines many common bacteria and describes their natural history, pathogenicity, and other characteristics.

Myers, Judith H., and Lorne E. Rothman. “Virulence and Transmission of Infectious Diseases in Humans and Insects: Evolutionary and Demographic Patterns.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10 (1995): 194-198. A discussion of the evolution of diseases.

Perlman, R. L. “Life Histories of Pathogen Populations.” International Journal of Infectious Diseases 13 (2009): 121-124. Argues that the virulence of pathogens should be rethought as a feature of pathogen populations, or groups, rather than as a feature of individual microorganisms within these populations.

Wilson, Michael, Brian Henderson, and Rod McNab. Bacterial Disease Mechanisms: An Introduction to Cellular Microbiology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Based on research advances in microbiology, molecular biology, and cell biology, this work describe the interactions between bacteria and human cells both in health and during infection.

In Never Cry Wolf, why was Farley paralyzed with fear in the last chapter of the book?

In "Never Cry Wolf", author Farley Mowat recounts his assignment to study the rapid and devastating decline of the caribou population in the Arctic wilderness of Canada. The events described took place in the 1940s and recount a timeless struggle between man and nature.

The reason for his being sent on the expedition in the first place was to study the effect of the wolf population on caribou. Hunters were asserting an overpopulation of wolves that was endangering the future of caribou hunting for the natives. In the process of carrying out his investigation he concludes that he is caught in the middle of a conspiracy on the part of the hunters to remove their natural competition, the wolves, so that they can simply profit more. The method they utilize to accomplish this end is to perpetuate the stereotype of the wolf as the monstrous beast of legend, a reputation that Mowat concludes is completely unjustified.

At the end of the book, as Farley explores a wolf den, he finds it inhabited by a female wolf and her cub. The encounter brings about no injury or threat, but the author is devastated by the fact that had he been armed at the time, he might well have killed the innocent wolf and her cub merely as a response to the deeply held yet unfounded impression of these amazing animals, in spite of his conclusions to the contrary.

The inexplicable depth and strength of prejudice in the human heart is indeed a fearful thing to contemplate, whether it's directed toward the animal world or our fellow humans.

In The Hobbit, what is a quote where Bilbo said that he wants to go on the adventure?

Bilbo rejects the adventure at first, but changes his mind when the dwarves leave without him. 

We are told that the Baggins family is well-respected because they are responsible and never go on adventures.  Going on adventures is frowned upon in the Shire.  Hobbits don’t like adventures.  They like things to be dependable and quiet.  However, Bilbo’s story is a little bit different. 

This is a story of how a Baggins had an adventure, found himself doing and saying things altogether unexpected. He may have lost the neighbors’ respect, but he gained—well you will see whether he gained anything in the end. (Ch. 1) 

The reason Bilbo went on an adventure is that he is part Took.  Apparently the Tooks are a less respectable family, since they are open to adventuring.  The Took side of Bilbo took him on an adventure.  It helps to have wizards for friends.  They always get you into trouble. 

When Gandalf the wizard first told Bilbo that he was looking for someone to go on an adventure with him, Bilbo refused.  Then thirteen dwarves showed up at Bilbo’s door, had a great party, and talked a lot about a dragon and the treasure he was guarding.  They also commented that Bilbo looked “more like a grocer than a burglar,” and that upset Bilbo’s pride.  

So after that the party went along very merrily, and they told stories or sang songs as they rode forward all day, except of course when they stopped for meals. These didn't come quite as often as Bilbo would have liked them, but still he began to feel that adventures were not so bad after all. (Ch. 2) 

The dwarves actually turned out to be pretty considerate guests.  They cleaned up after themselves, and left in the morning.  Unfortunately, they left on the adventure without Bilbo. Bilbo had decided he wanted to go, without even realizing it. 

"Don't be a fool, Bilbo Baggins!" he said to himself, "thinking of dragons and all that outlandish nonsense at your age!" (Ch. 2) 

Gandalf told him they have left him a note on the mantle with terms, and so he ended up rushing out the door before he seemed to know he was doing it.  He left without his handkerchief! I imagine that is a big deal for a hobbit used to comfort, but it would soon become the least of his worries.

Due to osmosis, if there is more salt outside a cell, then the water within the cell will be attracted to that salt and leave the cell to bond...

As you explained in the start of your question, osmosis helps cells maintain an equilibrium with regard to the amount of water inside and outside of the cell. When a concentration gradient of a solute (such as salt) exists on either side of the membrane, water will diffuse to the side with a higher concentration of solute until the concentrations on either side of the membrane are equal. Once the concentrations are equal, water flows back and forth through the membrane at the same rate and the concentrations are maintained. 

Osmosis is vital to the growth and development of cells because it allows the cell to adjust to changes in the environment. Under normal conditions, osmosis allows cells to maintain an equilibrium inside and outside the cell membrane. However, extreme conditions can sometimes cause cell death as a result of osmosis.

For example, when cells are exposed to a solution with a high concentration of solute (these solutions are called hypertonic) water rushes out of the cell towards the higher concentration outside and the cell can dehydrate. This is why we aren't able to drink seawater. The salt concentration in the water actually dehydrates our cells rather than hydrating them.

Conversely, cells exposed to hypotonic solutions (solutions that are more dilute than the internal environment of the cell) take on water so rapidly that they swell and burst.

Different organisms have evolved different ways of dealing with very hypertonic or hypotonic solutions. In animals, the blood works to maintain an isotonic (when the solute concentration is equal inside and outside of cells) environment. In plants, the cell wall limits the amount of water taken in by the cell and prevents bursting.

In plants, osmosis not only helps maintain proper water levels in the cell, but it also allows plants to take up water from the soil into their roots. Through active transport, plants keep a high concentration of solutes in their roots. This gradient causes water to be drawn into the roots, and it can then be transported through the rest of the plant.

Why did Europeans think colonialism was necessary?

Europeans sought colonies outside of their borders primarily for economic benefit. As industrialism grew in Europe, the potential for wealth skyrocketed. New technologies also improved farming output which led to a population boom in many countries. As a result, Europeans felt the need to acquire more land to secure resources that could be used as inputs for manufacturing. The acquisition of land also relieved population pressures as people could move to these lands to pursue agricultural opportunities. Securing colonies also provided countries with exclusive markets to peddle their industrial and agricultural goods.

Europeans also felt that their religion and culture was superior to those cultures found in Africa and Asia. They hoped to 'civilize' the masses of people in those areas and sent in Christian missionaries. Schools were also established to Westernize people in the colonies. It can be argued that the efforts to assimilate the colonial peoples also had an economic motive.  By teaching the people Western ways, they would be more productive which would lead to greater profits for the imperial powers.

How does Junior change throughout the story and how does he grow?

As the novel is a bildungsroman (coming of age story), Junior experiences many moments of change and growth throughout the book. One huge change Junior makes is realizing that even though he has been an outsider in many ways his whole life, he is also a part of "many tribes."  After a lifetime of bullying from his fellow tribe members and racism from his teachers and peers at Reardon, it's understandable for Junior to feel like an outsider in both worlds and like he doesn't fit in anywhere. As he deals with these problems throughout the story, though, he comes to a realization:

"sure, I was a Spokane Indian. I belonged to that tribe. But I also belonged to the tribe of American immigrants. And to the tribe of basketball players. And to the tribe of bookworms.

And to the tribe of cartoonists.

[...]

And the tribe of funeral goers.

And the tribe of beloved sons.

And the tribe of boys who really missed their best friends.

It was a huge realization.

And that's when I knew that I was going to be okay" (pg 190)

Junior discovers that you don't have to fit into a certain stereotype or group; it's enough to build your own groups of people, with all the little or big things you have in common. 

Another big change Junior makes is his decision to actively work for the future he wants. Junior has always known how the reservation holds little hope for a good future. He's seen his parents and sister give up on their dreams. He doesn't want the same thing to happen to him. So when he gets his mother's old textbook at school, he really feels the threat of losing his optimism and hopes and dreams on the reservation:

"And let me tell you, that old, old, old decrepit geometry book hit my heart with the force of a nuclear bomb. My hopes and dreams floated up in a mushroom cloud" (pg 34).

It is this event that leads Junior to the decision to attend Reardon and work to get a better education and more opportunities. At the end of the book, he has only completed his freshman year at Reardon, but already he seems more hopeful about the potential future he can have. 

Finally, an area of growth for Junior is in his social-emotional intelligence. It's natural for Junior, as someone who has been bullied a lot, to judge people harshly and see the bad sides of them. What's impressive in the novel is how forgiving he can be, and how perceptive in seeing other sides of people. Even though Penelope mocks him and Roger says one of the most racist jokes in a middle grade book, the two still end up two of his close friends by the end of the year. Of Roger, Junior says he is "of kind heart and generous pocket and a little bit racist" (pg 119). In Penelope's case, Junior goes back and forth seeing her deep dreamer side and her superficial pretty side, but also recognizes his own shallowness in doing so. In discovering that humans are nuanced, with both good and bad sides, Junior matures in how he relates to others.

"The Tell-Tale Heart" is told from whose point of view?

“The Tell-Tale Heart” is told from the point of view of an unnamed narrator, a young man who murders an old man who lives with him. The relationship between the two is unclear—perhaps one is a lodger and one is a landlord. The narrator spends much of the story attempting to convince the reader—and perhaps himself—that he is not a madman (he attests that “what you mistake for madness is but over-acuteness of the sense”), though with every development in his story it becomes clear that to some extent he does indeed merit that title. The murderer states that he holds no animosity toward the old man, but that he rather could not stand the sight of the old man’s “vulture eye”: “a pale blue eye with a film over it.” The night of the murder, the narrator, speaking of this eye, states, “I grew furious as I gazed upon it.” He has been overcome with an obsession, fueled by the very madness he denies, and after the murder is haunted by the beating of the dead man’s heart.

Polar molecules a. have little attraction for each other. b. are all solids. c. are symmetrical. d. are asymmetrical.

Choice (d) is correct. Polar molecules are asymmetrical.

Polar molecules are those molecules with positive and negative charge centers separated by some distance. These molecules have asymmetrical arrangements of atoms, so there are poles, that is, there are net charges present in the molecule. Water is a great example of a polar molecule. It is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.

H-O-H

It may look symmetrical, but in reality, there are two lone pairs of electrons on oxygen atom which push the hydrogen atoms away, thereby giving a "bent" geometry to the water molecule.

Non-polar molecules, in comparison, are symmetrical in nature and this symmetry causes a lack of any asymmetric charge centers. Carbon dioxide is a linear molecule and lacks any lone pair of electrons and is thus a non-polar molecule.

Hope this helps.

What three reasons does Lord Capulet give Count Paris for not wanting Juliet to marry so quickly?

In Act I, Scene 2 of Romeo and Juliet, Count Paris asks Lord Capulet for Juliet's hand in marriage. Lord Capulet gives three good reasons why they should wait. First, Juliet is too young. She's only thirteen, and Capulet wants her to be two years older before she marries. Secondly, Paris argues that there are girls Juliet's age who are already mothers, and Capulet responds that those girls are "marred" who have given birth so young (it may be a reference to his own wife, who says in Scene 3 that she was Juliet's age when she gave birth to the girl). Third, Capulet notes that Juliet is his only child and he wants her to be happy. He urges Paris to win Juliet's love. He says that he will only agree to the marriage if Juliet is happy in the match. He says,

But woo her, gentle Paris, get her heart;
My will to her consent is but a part.
And, she agreed, within her scope of choice
Lies my consent and fair according voice.

Later in the play, however, Capulet changes his mind and arranges for a very quick marriage between Juliet and Paris after the death of Tybalt.

What happens if we consume more energy than we use?

If we consume more energy than we use for our body's regular functioning, one of two things may happen. If we participate in activities that promote muscular buildup (such as running, jogging, etc.), this extra energy would be used up in building muscles. If we do not do so, then this extra energy will be stored in our body in the form of fats for later use. When this happens on a continuous basis (more energy intake than consumption), we tend to gain weight. This increase in body weight is accompanied by health risks such as heart problems, a higher risk of diabetes, etc. 

Thus, it is suggested that we monitor and control our diet and also exercise regularly to avoid the buildup of fats in our body. Several health monitors are also available in the market to help us track our physical activity.

Hope this helps. 

What is coaching?

Introduction

Executives in most organizations, regardless of their levels of responsibility, are challenged with the impact of technology, competitive markets, consumer demands, the expectations of a diverse workforce, and the problems associated with leadership. The practice of executive coaching, as an intervention, has been used in business settings since the 1970s. During this period, executives were enrolled in short-term programs to learn skills such as business etiquette and employee relations. In the 1980s, more sophisticated programs were developed that also focused on personal effectiveness. By the late 1990s, executive coaching was considered one of the fastest growing areas in consulting, with the number of coaches estimated in the tens of thousands.

The increased popularity of coaching is linked to its efficiency and cost-effectiveness. It is intended to be a goal-focused, personal plan for managers to improve performance, enhance a career, or work through organizational issues. The one-on-one, targeted approach of coaching adds to its appeal.

Models of Coaching

Coaching can be categorized into three areas: feedback coaching, developmental coaching, and content coaching. Each is delivered differently, and variations are based on company needs. However, all types of coaching are designed to help managers enhance their skills or improve in a specific area. Feedback coaching involves helping managers create a plan that addresses a particular need and giving them a responsive evaluation. An assessment instrument is used to identify strengths and areas needing improvement. Coaching usually occurs through several in-person conversations over a one- to six-month period. It begins with a planning meeting and is followed by subsequent sessions that assess progress and challenges and provide encouragement. The final meeting is used to conduct a mini-assessment and update the development plan. At this point, there also may be an option to continue coaching.

In-depth coaching generally lasts between six months and one year. This type of coaching is characterized as a close, intimate relationship between the executive and the coach. The information collection and analysis phases are extensive, and they typically involve interviews with the executive’s staff, colleagues, and, in some instances, clients, vendors, and family members. Multiple assessment tools are used to measure competencies, interests, and strengths. The coach may even observe the executive at work.

These data are reviewed during an intensive feedback session, which may last up to two days and results in the creation of a development plan. The coach continues to be involved during the implementation phase of the plan to determine progress, discuss roadblocks, and offer support. This work continues until the development plan has been completely implemented and the executive has made noticeable improvements.

Content coaching distinguishes itself from the other types of coaching because its goal is to help managers learn about specific areas of knowledge or develop a certain skill. For example, a manager may need to know more about global marketing or how to improve presentation skills. Content coaches, as experts in specialized fields, may require managers to read books to increase their content knowledge about a topic and participate in follow-up discussions. Other forms of coaching may involve analyzing videotaped role-playing or demonstrations and attending seminars or one-on-one meetings. The manager’s skill level and the desired outcome determine the duration of the coaching.

External Versus Internal Coaches

The cornerstones of the coaching relationship are trust and confidentiality. The degree of a coach’s involvement with the organization whose members are being coached is the source of debate, especially regarding whether a coach should be external or internal. External coaches offer a safe place for the coaching process. As outside resources, they have no appearance of a conflict of interest. Since they have no company-related interest in the outcome, the managers can speak freely without fear of reprisal.

Internal coaches have the dual role of serving both the company and the employee. An advantage is that the internal coach knows the organization’s policies and people. This knowledge can serve to benefit the overall organizational and individual goals. However, the sense of anonymity is lost, which could result in a compromise of the coaching relationship. In either instance, the integrity of the coaching relationship contributes to its success.

The Future of Coaching

Although coaching is characterized by the individual nature of the relationship between the executive and the coach, it occurs within the context of an organization. Many coaches believe that merely helping executives to change is insufficient, because these executives have created organizations that reflect their own personalities and inadequacies. Therefore, the responsibilities of the coach must broaden to encourage the executive to implement changes in a way that will benefit the entire organization. The notion of coaching can then be extended to that of coaching organizations. In this way, team building and performance-support techniques enable employees to manage themselves and their own behavior with increasing competence.

Bibliography

Cook, Marshall. Effective Coaching. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. Print.

Flaherty, James. Coaching: Evoking Excellence in Others. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005. Print.

Gilley, J. W. Stop Managing, Start Coaching: How Performance Coaching Can Enhance Commitment and Improve Productivity. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. Print.

Goldsmith, M., L. Lyons, and A. Freas, eds. Coaching for Leadership: How the World’s Greatest Coaches Help Leaders Learn. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer, 2000. Print.

Markle, G. L. Catalytic Coaching: The End of the Performance Review. Westport, Conn.: Quorum Books, 2000. Print.

McCarthy, Grace, and Julia Milner. "Managerial Coaching: Challenges, Opportunities, and Training." Journal of Management Development 32.7 (2013): 768–79. Print.

O’Neill, M. Executive Coaching with Backbone and Heart: A Systems Approach to Engaging Leaders with Their Challenges. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007. Print.

Passmore, Jonathan, David B. Peterson, and Tereza Freire. The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Coaching and Mentoring. Hoboken: Wiley, 2013. Print.

Reilly, Edward T. AMA Business Boot Camp: Management and Leadership Fundamentals That Will See You Successfully Through Your Career. Toronto: American Management Association, 2013. Print.

Rostron, Sunny Stout, Daniel Marques Sampaio, and Marti Janse Van Rensburg. Business Coaching International: Transforming Individuals and Organizations. 2nd ed. London: Karnac, 2014. Print.

Whitworth, Laura, Karen Kimsey-House, Henry Kimsey-House, and Phillip Sandahl. Co-active Coaching: New Skills for Coaching People Toward Success in Work and Life. Mountain View, Calif.: Davies-Black, 2007. Print.

What is rocky mountain spotted fever?

Causes and Symptoms

In 1906, a young Ohio-born physician, Howard Taylor Ricketts, went to Montana to study the cause of “spotted fever.” Through his efforts, Rocky Mountain spotted fever became the first tickborne infection to be recognized in North America. For the first half of the twentieth century, the disease was found mostly in the western United States, but since then the majority of the cases have been in the south Atlantic and south-central states. Dermacentor andersoni (Rocky Mountain wood tick) and D. variabilis (American dog tick) have been the two dominant tick species serving as vectors in the west and south, respectively.

Following the bite of an infected tick, rickettsia are transmitted through the skin into the lymphatic system and small blood vessels. Once in the bloodstream, they invade endothelial cells. The rickettsia multiply intracellularly by binary fission and spread to adjacent endothelial cells, injuring and killing their cellular hosts, which results in widespread vascular damage.

The incubation period or time from tick bite to illness is usually about seven days. The illness begins with fever, often greater than 102 degrees Fahrenheit, accompanied by headache and myalgias (muscle pain). The classic rash usually begins on the third day, starting on the wrists and ankles and spreading to the trunk. The palms and soles are often involved. The rash begins as small blanching macules and progresses to petechiae. Shock, abdominal pain, and neurological problems may mimic other diseases, making the correct diagnosis more difficult. Specific laboratory confirmation can be obtained by measuring antibodies two to three weeks later.

Treatment and Therapy

Doxycycline, a tetracycline antibiotic, is the treatment of choice for both children and adults. Therapy with doxycycline should be started immediately if Rocky Mountain spotted fever is suspected, as delays in therapy are associated with poor outcomes. Prevention can be accomplished by measures to prevent tick bites, such as wearing light-colored clothing and using insecticides and repellants on clothing and skin. Careful removal of ticks from individuals and their dogs before injection of rickettsia can occur will also prevent the disease.

Perspective and Prospects

Rocky Mountain spotted fever is spreading into new geographic locations with the acquisition of new tick vectors. It is also no longer a rural disease and has been found in urban parks. Prompt treatment with doxycycline has reduced the mortality rate from more than 80 percent in the pre-antibiotic era to less than 1 percent. Early diagnostic tests are lacking but are needed, as the majority of Rocky Mountain spotted fever cases are incorrectly diagnosed upon the first visit to a doctor. Thus far, researchers have been unable to develop a protective vaccine.

Bibliography

Badash, Michelle, and Michael K. Mansour. "Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever." Health Library, May 20, 2013.

Chen, Luke F., and Daniel J. Sexton. “What’s New in Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever?” Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 22 (2008): 415–432.

Dugdale, David C. III, Jatin M. Vyas, and David Zieve." Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever." MedlinePlus, June 9, 2011.

Margolis, Lynn, and Betsy Palmer Eldridge. “What a Revelation Any Science Is!” ASM News 71 (2005): 65–70.

"Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Apr. 30, 2012.

"Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever." National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Jan. 28, 2011.

"Tick Bites." MedlinePlus, Apr. 29, 2013.

Walker, David H. “Rickettsia rickettsii and Other Spotted Fever Group Rickettsiae (Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever and Other Spotted Fevers).” In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, edited by Gerald L. Mandell, John F. Bennett, and Raphael Dolin. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2009.

Why is recruitment important?

It is fair to say that businesses can only succeed if they have the right people working for them.  Good employees will manage the business well and will produce high-quality goods and services.  How do companies get the right people to work for them?  They do so by recruiting.  This is why recruitment is important in business.

With the exception of the person who founds a business, everyone who works in that business is an employee.  This means that essentially every function of most firms is conducted by a person who has been hired to work at that firm.  Employees at the highest levels decide what the firm will try to accomplish and how it will try to do so.  Employees at lower levels take those decisions and implement them.  Managers have to determine exactly how to achieve the goals set by higher management.  Managers have to work with the employees at the lowest levels to make sure that they are doing their jobs right.  The employees at the lowest levels have to have the skills and the attitudes needed to produce whatever their firm makes.

In order to get employees who can fulfill these roles, recruitment is necessary. If a company does not recruit well, it will not get the best possible employees.  The firm’s human resources people have to do a good job of determining what qualities and competencies a new employee needs to have.  The HR people have to figure out how to advertise the job opening so that the biggest pool of qualified applicants will see it.  They have to do everything they can to make sure that they make qualified people aware of their job opening, even if those people are currently employed elsewhere.  They have to go through applications and identify the best applicants.  They have to do good job interviews to make sure that they hire the best people.  If they do not do a good job at any step in this process, they will not get the best possible employees.  Since businesses cannot succeed without good employees, they will reduce the chances that their firm will achieve its goals.

Recruitment is how businesses get good workers.  Good workers are necessary for businesses to succeed.  Therefore, recruitment is of paramount importance to businesses.

What is mind-body medicine?

Overview

According to Hippocrates, “The natural healing force within each one of
us is the greatest force in getting well.” Ancient civilizations and the
indigenous peoples of the Americas, for example, have known and practiced
mind/body medicine for centuries. These ancient healing practices include
traditional
Chinese medicine, Ayurvedic medicine, and various forms
of indigenous medicine. This conceptual framework of interdependence of the
mind/body relationship is in sharp contrast to the theory of Western medicine,
which separates the mind from the body and sees no interconnection between
them.

Modern Interests

In the early 1960s came renewed interest in the possible connection between the mind and the body in the context of healing. George Solomon, a psychiatrist, knew that persons with rheumatoid arthritis had an exacerbation of symptoms when they were depressed. From this realization he developed a new field of medicine that incorporated the knowledge of psychology, neurology, and immunology: psychoneuroimmunology. Another physician, Herbert Benson, studied the affect of meditation on blood pressure levels. Psychologist Robert Ader further illustrated the relationship of mind and body and how this interplay could be affected by mental and emotional cues. He was interested in how this relationship affected the immune system. The mind/body connection, for the most part, is no longer viewed with suspicion. Indeed, its study is now part of the curricula of many medical schools worldwide.

Mind/Body Medicine

Theoretically, mind/body medicine works through reducing stress levels, thereby
decreasing the overload release of hormones such as cortisol,
which affect the immune system. These hormones have a major affect on the
cardiovascular system, and they also increase inflammation of organs and joints.
By decreasing the release of these stressors, one can manage many chronic
diseases. Experiments have shown not only a reduction in blood pressure but also a
reduction in body temperature.

One has only to close one’s eyes and open one’s mind to visualize a Hindu monk,
for example, performing such physical-mental feats. These acts of will, through
self-control practiced through multiple forms of relaxation, can be performed by
anyone with training. Meditation, yoga, guided visualization, relaxation
techniques, biofeedback, and cognitive behavioral therapy are
methods employed in mind/body medicine.

Conditions that have been improved by choosing an appropriate modality include asthma, coronary heart disease, hypertension (high blood pressure), anxiety, insomnia, fibromyalgia, menopausal symptoms, and the nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy. By choosing the preferred modality, a participant enhances the chance for success.

Hypnosis is another form of mind/body medicine that has
gained favor. It has been shown to be advantageous in multiple situations,
including dental treatments, minor surgery, and treatment for phobias. Although
this is a proven modality, it may not work for everybody.

David Spiegel of Stanford University School of Medicine treated eighty-six women with late-stage breast cancer; one-half received standard recommended treatments, the other half received, in addition to the standard treatment, weekly support sessions in which the women shared personal triumphs and grief. The women who participated in these support groups lived twice as long as those who did not have this social support. Other clinical trails have shown that meditation and laughter affect mood and improve the quality of life.

Practice

As with any form of medical therapy, treatments should be rendered by licensed
professionals only. Mind/body medicine does not provide curative measures as such.
It is a form of integrative medicine, complementary to well-established
medical treatments.

Also, it is important to have ongoing evaluation of the success or failure of treatment. Re-evaluation, which can be curative in its own right, is an ongoing process that should be incorporated into the routine activities of the person seeking care.

Motivation of the patient and the trust instilled by the practitioner are as much a part of mind/body medicine as the treatment itself. As with any form of healing, the interplay among those involved needs to be established at the start of treatment. The greatest satisfaction a practitioner can achieve is attainment of the goals set by both the practitioner and the person being treated.

Bibliography

Ader, R., and N. Cohen. “Psychoneuroimmunology: Conditioning and Stress.” Annual Review of Psychology 44 (1993): 53-85.

Lando, J., and S. M. Williams. “Uniting Mind and Body in Our Health Care and Public Health Systems.” Preventing Chronic Disease 3, no. 2 (2006): A31.

McMillan, T. L., and S. Mark. “Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Physical Activity for Menopausal Symptoms.” Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 59, no. 4 (2004): 270-277.

What would be a main character sketch of Helen Keller from The Story of My Life?

Helen Keller was a woman who accomplished much in her life. She wrote her autobiography, The Story of My Life, which detailed her experiences from infancy to her early twenties. When Helen was a little over a year old, she became very ill. Her illness left her deaf and blind. Helen's parents did not know what to do to help their daughter. She lived a very unstructured life until she was six and her parents sent for a teacher. That teacher was Ms. Sullivan, who was partially blind. Ms. Sullivan was a determined young woman. She made many attempts to teach Helen and to tame her bad habits.

One day Helen and Ms. Sullivan were taking a walk. They came by a water pump, where "some one was drawing water." They stopped and Ms. Sullivan "placed [Helen's] hand under the spout." As the water flowed over Helen's hand, her teacher spelled "w-a-t-e-r" into her palm. While her teacher did this spelling action, Helen "felt a misty consciousness as of something forgotten—a thrill of returning thought; and somehow the mystery of language was revealed." Helen's life changed after this moment. She became an avid lover of learning.

Helen eventually went away to school, though Ms. Sullivan remained her constant companion. She even went to college. Helen became a highly educated woman. She had many friends and was an inspiration to others. She communicated effectively and became a talented writer. Her primary means of communication continued to be the manual alphabet, which was what Ms. Sullivan taught her from the beginning.

True happiness lies neither in material possessions nor in knowledge or learning. Materialistic life is futile, fleeting, illusionary and...

In "The Bet" by Anton Chekhov, your first statement that "Materialistic life is futile, fleeting, illusionary, and superficial," is proved by the banker himself. When he made the bet with the lawyer, he was a very rich man, but by the end, he has lost most of his wealth. He spent foolishly, made unwise decisions, and now finds himself in a peculiar circumstance. If he pays the lawyer for winning the bet, he will have nothing left.

"'That cursed bet murmured the old man clutching is head in despair. . . ."Why didn't the man die? He's only forty years old. He will take away my last penny, marry, enjoy life, gamble on the exchange, and I will look on like an envious beggar and hear the same words from him every day: 'I'm obliged to you for the happiness of my life. Let me help you.' No, it's too much! The only escape from bankruptcy and disgrace--is that the man should die'" (Chekhov 6).

The banker's money was about gone, but it hadn't brought him happiness. He thinks he is going to lose the bet and now will have neither money or happiness. He does, however, still seem to believe that money is important enough to kill over it. But, will he ever be able to have happiness if he murders a man?

The lawyer, on the other hand, spent all of these 15 years in confinement, reading, studying, and learning, but that did not bring him happiness either. Knowing that he would soon be a rich man certainly didn't bring him happiness, or else he would not have left his cell mere minutes before his time was up. He realized that all of life was a "mirage." He understood that everyone was going to die in the end, and no amount of money or learning could change that. By the end of his confinement, the lawyer does not want the money. 

What does Cutler's Tavern look like in Lyddie by Katherine Paterson?

In a word: BIG.  

Lyddie arrives at Cutler's Tavern at the end of chapter two.  She has been sold into indentured servitude by her mother in order to pay off the family debts.  Lyddie's place of work is Cutler's Tavern.  The first description of the tavern occurs at the beginning of chapter three.  The text says that the tavern was bigger than the Stevenses' farmhouse, and that it appeared to have additions built on top of additions.  There is a "huge chimney" in the center of the main building.  The text says that birds "soar" around the chimney which tells the reader that the chimney is quite tall.  The tavern is complete with its own shed and multiple barns as well.  We are told that the final barn is "at least four stories high."  The entire complex is the biggest thing that Lyddie has ever seen in her life.  The final detail about the tavern's exterior is that it was painted red.  

What is paraplegia?

Causes and Symptoms

Paraplegia, the loss of motor and sensory function in the lower body, results in paralysis that may be complete or incomplete, spastic or flaccid, symmetric or asymmetric, and permanent or temporary. Almost half of the 10,000 to 12,000 spinal cord
injuries reported each year result in paraplegia. This condition occurs twice as often in men as in women, and the incidence is highest between ages sixteen and thirty-five. Most spinal cord injuries result from trauma, especially automobile, motorcycle, and sporting accidents; gunshot wounds and falls also contribute. Less common causes are nontraumatic lesions, such as spina bifida, scoliosis, and chordoma.

In many patients, the onset of total or partial paralysis is immediate, resulting in loss of motion, sensation, and reflexes below the level of the lesion, with urinary retention and absence of perspiration in the paralyzed parts. In some patients, careful questioning and gentle examination are necessary to determine the extent of motor or sensory loss. Spinal cord injuries with motor and sensory loss may result in bowel, bladder, and sexual dysfunctions, depending on the level of the lesion and whether damage to the cord is complete or incomplete. In an incomplete spinal cord injury, perianal sensation, voluntary toe flexion, or sphincter control is still present. In a complete spinal cord injury, lack of sensation or voluntary muscle control is apparent and persists for twenty-four hours. Any return of functional muscle power distal to the injury is unlikely.

Diagnosis requires a clinical history, neurologic examination, and computed tomography (CT) scans. A lumbar puncture
may rule out blocked cerebrospinal fluid
circulation. Laboratory studies include a complete blood count (CBC), prothrombin time, electrolytes, twenty-four-hour urine for creatinine clearance, serum creatinine, and urinalysis. Weekly urine samples for culture and sensitivity are advisable during the entire rehabilitation period.

Treatment and Therapy

The four goals of treatment for any spinal cord injury are restoration of normal alignment for the spine, early assurance of complete stability of the injured spinal area, decompression of compressed neurologic structures, and early rehabilitation to an active and productive life.

Treatment begins at the scene of the accident by not moving the patient until the spine and head have been stabilized through strapping the patient to a board. Even after reaching the hospital, the patient is not removed from the board but placed on a stretcher while still strapped to it. Such stabilization helps prevent reversible damage from becoming permanent through additional injury to the neuraxis. Supportive treatment corrects systemic shock and controls local hemorrhage. Insertion of a Foley catheter ensures uninterrupted urine drainage.

Whenever possible, the care of spinal cord injuries emphasizes conservative treatment, such as closed reduction of fractures. However, unstable fractures and fracture dislocations require fusion following reduction, combined with recumbent immobilization until healing occurs. Bone fragments pressing on the spinal cord may require laminectomy (surgical removal of the vertebral arch). Drug therapy may include nitrofurantoin to prevent bladder
infection; large doses of vitamin C to enhance utilization of protein and help minimize infection by acidifying the urine; diazepam, baclofen, or dantrolene sodium to relieve skeletal muscle spasms from upper motor neuron disorders; and, sparingly, analgesics and narcotics to relieve pain. The extent of paralysis cannot be accurately assessed until a year after the spinal cord injury.

Bibliography

Asbury, Arthur K., et al., eds. Diseases of the Nervous System: Clinical Neuroscience and Therapeutic Principles. 3d ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Bromley, Ida. Tetraplegia and Paraplegia: A Guide for Physiotherapists. 6th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2006.

Fehlings, Michael G. Essentials of Spinal Cord Injury: Basic Research to Clinical Practice. New York: Stuttgart, 2013.

Iansek, Robert, and Meg. E. Morris, eds. Rehabilitation in Movement Disorders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Kohnle, Diana. "Paraplegia." Health Library, November 28, 2012.

Victor, Maurice, and Allan H. Ropper. Adams and Victor’s Principles of Neurology. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.

What happens to Wilson's garage in The Great Gatsby?

In Fitzgerald's novel, The Great Gatsby, George Wilson runs a garage in the "valley of ashes" between the Eggs (West and East) and New York City. Wilson is described as somewhat lifeless and frazzled. In chapter seven it is revealed that he has discovered his wife has been unfaithful to him. She has actually been having an affair with Tom Buchanan, who knows Wilson and sometimes does business with him.

When Tom, Nick, and Jordan stop at the garage on their way to the city, Wilson tells Tom he is planning to leave and take his wife west. He inquires about a car Tom has agreed to sell to him. Wilson hopes to make some money on the car so he can leave as soon as possible. Wilson never reveals what he plans to do with the garage. Presumably, after he kills Gatsby, the garage will be taken over by someone else.

For further discussion about the symbolism of the garage, see the link below.   

What is the relationship between gender and addiction?

Biological Differences

Women are generally smaller than men in physical stature and cannot absorb as high a volume of alcohol and drugs as men before becoming intoxicated. Despite this common understanding, women, especially young women, often keep up with their male peers in drinking and consequently sustain a higher level of intoxication.

Scientists learned in a 1999 study that women metabolize alcohol differently than men, leaving them with higher concentrations of alcohol lingering in their blood and a higher susceptibility to cirrhosis of the liver and brain damage. This finding explains how the genders process substances differently, but it does not answer the question of whether gender plays a role in becoming substance dependent.

In a 2010 article in the American Journal of Public Health, researchers discussed their study of gender differences in medical conditions and psychiatric and substance-abuse disorders among inhabitants in jails in the United States. The researchers reported that, although gender differences play into the presence of chronic medical and psychiatric conditions, gender differences do not seem to account for the prevalence of substance abuse.

In a 2007 article in Psychiatric Times, neuroscience professor Sudie E. Back refuted assertions that rates of substance abuse among men and women were linked to gender differences. She said that for decades there simply has been more data on addiction among men. Male substance abuse is more visible, and through institutions like prisons and the US Department of Veterans Affairs, more data are available. Less research has been done on women but, according to the little that has been done, the prevalence of substance abuse disorders has less to do with gender and more to do with experiences in childhood and adolescence, with mental health, and with stresses in life. To the extent that gender plays a role in understanding substance abuse, the significance is in how addicts are diagnosed and rehabilitated.

Though chemical differences in males and females, such as the presence of testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen, can account for urges to ingest substances and the intensity of their effects, the onset of substance abuse may have much less to do with gender and more to do with temperament and life experience. When reporting on drivers to ingest substances, females most often attributed an internal emotional stress factor, while men linked an external cue. Also, fewer women than men are likely to enter a substance-abuse treatment program; women seek counseling from a mental health or primary care provider.

Environmental Differences

In a 2006 article in Canadian Psychology, researchers presented the results of their review of fifteen studies that analyzed whether any variation in how males and females cope with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) accounts for different rates of substance abuse between the genders. The researchers found that males and females experiencing PTSD were equally at risk for substance-abuse disorders and that, regardless of gender, specialists must be cognizant of the risk for any person with PTSD in engaging in behaviors that can lead to addiction.

According to a 2007 study at the University of Minnesota, women are more inclined to “internalize drinking problems than [are] men.” Women tend to hide alcoholism, while men tend to act it out. The study concluded that intervention reaches men more readily than it does women, and suggested that women develop alcoholism later in life than men and spiral into alcohol addiction more rapidly. Data pointed to a stigma related to alcoholism for women that is much less apparent for men. Gretchen Cook reported in a 2003 Women’s E-News article that,
Recovery experts often note that while drinking has traditionally almost been a rite of passage for men, it has been considered “unladylike,” and that female alcoholics suffered harsher judgments from themselves and society. It’s only in the past decade that the institute has added women to their subject pools.

Perhaps entry into alcohol and drug dependence could be reduced simply through raising awareness in how gender-sensitive norms can facilitate behavior leading to addiction. In a 2009 article in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, researchers investigated whether social contexts of consuming alcohol influenced college males and females differently in the automatic alcohol associations made in the brain. The researchers found that gender-sensitive social cues trigger a desire to drink. As far as gender differences, researchers found a high general social approval of male heavy drinking and much lower approval for females engaging in heavy drinking. Given the social cognition linked to drinking, the study concluded, this higher social tolerance of males drinking in college creates a higher risk for males developing a lifestyle of heavy drinking.

Gender-Specific Treatment

In 2007, researchers at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington implemented and then analyzed the results of gender-centric educational initiatives to reduce alcoholism. The project began with awareness-raising events such as small-group meetings to discuss norms associated with gender and to examine how alcohol may be used to enhance or reduce those norms. The project also featured discussions to build cross-gender empathy and understanding of how alcoholism harms individuals of the opposite gender, and it featured studies into gender-based advertising for alcohol products and bars. Both professional- and peer-intervention measures were integrated into the project.

The researchers discovered that, though professional intervention was most effective in reducing gender-based expectations with drinking, peer intervention was much more effective in directly reducing drinking behavior. This suggests that once a person understands the gender-based norms he or she is measuring themselves and others against, that person can process how alcohol consumption plays into those expectations and resist falling into a gender trap of alcoholism.

Bibliography

Back, Sudie E. “Substance Abuse in Women: Does Gender Matter?” Psychiatric Times, 1 Jan. 2007, 48. Print.

Binswanger, Ingrid A., et al. “Gender Differences in Chronic Medical, Psychiatric, and Substance-Dependence Disorders among Jail Inmates.” American Journal of Public Health 100.3 (2010): 476–82. Print.

Condor, Bob. “Gender Differences about Alcohol Are Sobering.” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 30 Apr. 2007, D1. Print.

Farrington, Elizabeth Leigh. “Using Gender-Based Initiatives to Reduce Campus Drinking.” Women in Higher Education 16.5 (2007): 22. Print.

Lindgren, Kristen P., et al. “Automatic Alcohol Associations: Gender Differences and the Malleability of Alcohol Associations Following Exposure to a Dating Scenario.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 70 (2009): 583. Print.

Stewart, Sherry, et al. “Are Gender Differences in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Rates Attenuated in Substance Use Disorder Patients?” Canadian Psychology 47.2 (2006): 110–24. Print.

What is compulsive overeating?

Signs

It is estimated that 4 million American adults are compulsive overeaters.

The behavior is nearly twice as common in women as in men, and it typically begins before the age of twenty years. The primary sign of compulsive overeating is regularly eating large quantities of food uncontrollably without physical hunger. Other food-related behaviors include eating rapidly, eating to the point of physical discomfort, eating alone and secretly, hiding food to eat later, hiding the evidence of eating, stealing other people’s food, and eating food that has been discarded or is about to be discarded.

Compulsive overeaters have a preoccupation with food, spending inordinate amounts of time on meal planning, food shopping, and cooking and eating. They make furtive trips to convenience stores, fast- food restaurants, and late-night grocery stores. They recognize that their eating habits are not normal and feel powerless to stop eating voluntarily. They turn to food for comfort and yet use it as a reward. Their rapid weight gain brings them feelings of guilt, shame, disgust, and self-loathing. They cannot separate their identify from their weight; in weighing themselves, for example, how they feel about themselves is dictated by the number on the scale. They believe that they will be better persons once they are thin, so they try various diets with a sense of desperation. Although weight may be lost initially, it is often regained, plus more.

Underlying Causes

Researchers have not conclusively determined the underlying causes of compulsive overeating. Studies have investigated genetic predispositions to food addiction, in which a person’s metabolism of foods, such as sugar, wheat, and fats, affects the same areas of the brain affected by other addictive substances, such as cocaine. Other brain studies have examined compulsive overeating as a biochemically based impulse disorder somewhat similar to kleptomania, hypersexuality, compulsive shopping, and gambling addiction. A connection to dopamine in the brain has been shown, as well as hypersensitivity to the pleasurable properties of foods.

Some medical professionals consider compulsive overeating to be a means of
self-medicating for clinical depression. In some cases, the
resulting rapid weight gain may be a protective mechanism to cope with physical or
sexual abuse. The behavior also may serve to numb painful emotions of rejection,
abandonment, and low self-esteem. One study showed that compulsive overeaters
produce more cortisol in response to stress than do normal eaters;
cortisol is known to stimulate the drive to eat, leading to obesity.
Chronic stress has an apparent connection to the preference for high-energy foods
that contain large amounts of sugar and fat.

Negative Effects

The unbalanced diet of the compulsive overeater, who typically chooses sweets
and starches, has adverse health consequences, such as high serum cholesterol
level, high blood pressure, and increased risks for heart attack,
stroke, kidney failure, and diabetes.
This diet also may result in lethargy, moodiness, irritability, and
depression.

In some cases, self-harming may be used to dissociate from emotional pain by
substituting physical pain that releases endorphins. Compulsive overeaters who
self-harm usually hold themselves to unreasonably high standards, have difficulty
expressing their emotions, and are repulsed by their own bodies. The extreme and
rapid weight gain contributes to varicose veins, blood clots in the
legs, sciatica, arthritis, and bone deterioration. It
may also cause shortness of breath and sleep apnea.

Treatment

Like alcoholism, compulsive overeating is considered to be a disease in that it involves treatment and recovery and cannot be overcome by willpower alone. However, it is also a behavior that may be managed with behavior modification therapy. A typical initial exercise is to keep a food diary, a written record of the kind and quantity of food eaten, the time and place of eating, and the emotional context. This diary is then analyzed to identify habits, underlying emotions, and foods that trigger uncontrollable eating. The next step usually is to consult a nutritionist to devise a healthy food plan with adequate calories for energy, necessary nutrients, and fiber for improved digestion. A third step is to identify and practice healthy activities–emotional coping mechanisms–that substitute for food; these activities may include exercise, meditation, and spending time with friends.

Persons can seek support from professional counseling or from a twelve-step
program such as Overeaters Anonymous. In some cases, drug therapy with
antidepressants may be appropriate.

Bibliography

Academy for Eating Disorders. http://www.aedweb.org.

National Eating Disorders Association. http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org.

Ross, Carolyn Coker. The Binge Eating and Compulsive Overeating Workbook: An Integrated Approach to Overcoming Disordered Eating. Oakland, Calif.: New Harbinger, 2009. With distinct sections on healing the body, mind, and spirit, this book offers a whole-body plan for regaining physical and emotional health.

Sheppard, Kay. Food Addiction: The Body Knows. Rev. ed. Deerfield Beach, Fla.: Health Communications, 1993. Written by a certified eating-disorder specialist, this book addresses the addictive influences of the metabolism of flour and sugar, as well as the psychological need for support and self-healing.

What is calcium?

Calcium is a chemical element. In its elemental form, it is a soft, gray, reactive metal. Due to its reactivity, however, calcium easily reacts with other atoms to form compounds and does not appear naturally in its elemental form. Calcium is the fifth most abundant element in Earth’s crust and the fifth most abundant element dissolved in seawater. Its ubiquity has sealed calcium’s significance in human history. Calcium’s compounds were known to humans long before the element itself was isolated. The numerous inorganic compounds of calcium used across a spectrum of industries are often called "limes," and the word calcium is derived from the Latin word for lime, calx. Calcium is also biologically significant: it plays roles in the biochemistry and physiology of cells, cell signaling, and musculoskeletal tissue.

Background

Calcium’s compounds were known and useful to humans thousands of years before the discovery of elemental calcium. For example, quicklime, the common name for calcium oxide (CaO), has been found in the flooring of an archeological site near the Mediterranean Sea dating to 7000–6000 BCE. Calcium oxide has a diversity of uses. When heated to high temperatures, it will glow intensely, and this distinct illumination was used in theatrical productions prior to the advent of electrical lighting and is the origin of the term "limelight." Calcium oxide is also used in the production of cement, paper, weaponry, and biodiesel.

Calcium oxide is a product of the thermal decomposition of another critical calcium compound, calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and much like calcium oxide, its uses are diverse. For example, it is used in art as a pigment and as a paint primer as well as a dietary supplement, in pharmaceuticals, food preservatives, ore purification, ceramics, adhesives, and in absorbent materials such as disposable diapers. Biologically, calcium carbonate is the main component of marine shells, eggshells, pearls, and snails. Calcium carbonate can be found in plants, and the dietary benefits of dark green vegetables such as kale and broccoli comes primarily from calcium in carbonate form. Geologically, calcium carbonate is found in marble, travertine, chalk, and limestone. Many of these materials have been historically important building materials. As such, calcium carbonate’s reactivity with acids is visible in historic limestone structures (such as the Great Pyramids of Giza) that have been noted to be damaged by exposure to acid rain. Limestone comprises 10 percent of the total sedimentary rock found on Earth, and most cave systems move through limestone bedrock. Other calcium compounds with familiar uses are calcium hypochlorite, which is used in household deodorants and in bleaching agents; calcium stearate, which is used to create cosmetics, some plastics, and wax crayons; calcium chloride, which is used for ice removal; and calcium tungstate, which is used in fluorescent lights. In addition to these uses of calcium compounds, the compound hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 can be found in bone, dental enamel, and dentin tissue.

Despite the ubiquity of calcium’s compounds in our bodies, homes, landscapes, and art, the elemental form of calcium was not discovered until 1808 by the British chemist, Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829). Davy used electrolysis through a lime mixture to isolate calcium, similar to the technique he used to isolate chemically related elements such as potassium, sodium, boron, and magnesium.

Overview

Calcium is the twentieth element on the periodic table. It has an atomic number of 20, meaning it has twenty protons. Calcium atoms can have different numbers of neutrons. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Ninety-seven percent of naturally occurring calcium has an equal number of protons and neutrons, but calcium has stable isotopes with twenty-two, twenty-three, twenty-four, and twenty-six neutrons.

A neutral calcium atom would have twenty electrons, but calcium is not naturally found in a neutral state. Calcium so readily forms chemical compounds that elemental calcium was not isolated until the technology existed for using direct current to drive an otherwise nonspontaneous chemical reaction. Calcium was familiar to humans through its myriad compounds.

Calcium belongs to the group or family of elements known as the alkaline earth metals (also referred to as the group 2 elements), and like the other alkaline earth metals, is an s-block element because its outermost electrons are in the s orbital. The alkaline earth metals are the elements found in the second column from the left of the modern periodic table, and calcium’s chemical and physical properties share some similarities with its nearest neighbors on the periodic table.

In addition to their shared metallic properties, calcium has other chemical and physical properties that are common among alkaline earth metals such as relatively low melting points, boiling points, and densities. Like other alkaline earth metals, calcium is a reactive metal, with reactivity increasing as the atoms get heavier. Also, like other alkaline earth metals (with the exception of beryllium), calcium reacts strongly with water to produce hydrogen gas and calcium (or respective) hydroxide.

Understanding the atomic structure of calcium provides insight into its reactive nature and its importance in the biochemistry of life and the chemical compounds encountered in nature and used in industry

Bibliography

Campbell, Anthony K. Intracellular Calcium. Chichester: Wiley, 2014. Print.

Chen, Xiaoyu, et al. "Using Calcium Carbonate Whiskers as Papermaking Filler." BioResources 6.3 (2011): 2435–47. Print.

Croddy, Eric. Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen. New York: Springer, 2002. Print.

Emsley, John. Nature’s Building Blocks: An AZ Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2011. Print.

Halka, Monica, and Brian Nordstrom. Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals. New York: Facts on File, 2010. Print.

Holmes, Richard. The Age of Wonder: How the Romantic Generation Discovered the Beauty and Terror of Science. London: Harper, 2011. Print.

Housecroft, Catherine E., and Alan G. Sharpe. Inorganic Chemistry 4th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2012. Print.

Pauling, Linus. Nature of the Chemical Bond. 3rd ed. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2010. Print.

Who does Aunt Alexandra remind the reader of in Chapter 13 of Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird?

In Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, Aunt Alexandra can really be seen as a composition of a couple of different characters, and, as such, she reminds us of other characters within the book.

One character she reminds us of is Mrs. Henry Lafayette Dubose since both women represent and hold on to the old ways of the South. One aspect of the old Southern ways Aunt Alexandra holds on to concerns her views of how ladies should behave. As a result of her old-fashioned views, Aunt Alexandra is very critical of Scout, and her criticisms are reminiscent of Mrs. Dubose's cantankerous criticisms. Aunt Alexandra frequently ridicules Scout for wearing overalls. Specifically in Chapter 13, we learn that Aunt Alexandra thinks Scout is a much poorer conversationalist than she should be as a girl. In fact, Scout announces, "It was plain that Aunty thought me dull in the extreme, because I once heard her tell Atticus that I was sluggish" (Ch. 13). Aunt Alexandra's criticisms of Scout are very reminiscent of Mrs. Dubose's criticisms of Scout, whom Scout once quoted as saying, "Don't you say hey to me, you ugly girl! You say good afternoon, Mrs. Dubose!" (Ch. 11).

In addition, while Aunt Alexandra and Atticus differ significantly in their views, especially concerning racial issues, Aunt Alexandra is actually very much like Atticus; we could even see her as a female version of her brother. One way in which she reflects Atticus's nature concerns the fact that, just like Atticus, she is a leader of society. Her leadership skills are seen in the fact that she joins her own Missionary Society, is seen as a reputable hostess, and even becomes Secretary of the Maycomb Amanuensis Club. Scout further describes that Aunt Alexandra was highly esteemed by Maycomb's society for the following reasons:

To all parties present and participating in the life of the county, Aunt Alexandra was one of the last of her kind: she had river-boat, boarding-school manners; let any moral come along and she would uphold it; she was born in the objective case ... . She was never bored, and given the slightest chance she would exercise her royal prerogative: she would arrange, advise, caution, and warn. (Ch. 13)

Similarly, Atticus is a celebrated and trusted lawyer, trusted to the extent that Judge Taylor singled him out to handle a difficult defense case. What's more, Atticus is elected to the state legislature each year without opposition. The only difference between Atticus and his sister Alexandra, aside from racial views, is the fact that his sister believes that, as a woman, her activities should be restricted to "feminine" activities such as hosting.

Why was it important to Phillip to have Timothy describe to him what was out there?

In The Cay by Theodore Taylor, Phillip is injured when he gets hit in the head after the ship he and his mother are on is torpedoed. As he and Timothy sail along on a raft, Phillip's head begins to ache more and more, and then one morning, he wakes up and is blind. Timothy becomes Phillip's eyes, describing to him what the sky looks like and what he sees in the ocean.

"'Tell me what's out there, Timothy,' I said. It was very important to know that now. I wanted to know everything that was out there" (Taylor 49).

Phillip was realizing how important his sight was and what he was now missing by losing it. Timothy could paint a mental picture for him through his description of the ocean, the fish and other creatures, and the sky.

Once they make land on the cay, Phillip really depends on Timothy to help him get around the little island. Timothy helps him to develop his other senses by insisting that he try things, and in the end, the lessons Phillip learns from Timothy are what helps him to survive after Timothy dies.