Describe some things the colonists did to rebel against the King of England.

There were several things the colonists did to rebel against the King of England. When the Proclamation of 1763 was passed, preventing the colonists from moving west of the Appalachian Mountains, some colonists defied this law and went to this region.

The colonists refused to follow some of the British trade policies. For example, the colonists smuggled products from other countries into the colonies.

Another act of defiance was the protests that occurred when the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts were passed. The colonists said the British were violating their rights because the colonists didn’t have representatives in Parliament that could speak about and vote on the proposed taxes. Thus, the colonists agreed to boycott British products. They also agreed, after the Townshend Acts were passed, to make their own products.

The colonists were upset with the Tea Act. They organized the Boston Tea Party to destroy some of the tea that was shipped into Boston Harbor. They also refused to obey the Intolerable Acts that were passed after the Boston Tea Party. The Intolerable Acts were passed to punish the colonists, especially those in Massachusetts, for the Boston Tea Party. The colonists began to form their own militias after the Intolerable Acts were passed.

The colonists used many actions to rebel against the rule of the British.

What is the Emancipation Proclamation?

My Dungeon Shook, by James Baldwin, was a letter written to his nephew on the hundred-year anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation. In his letter, Baldwin criticizes the persistently poor treatment of Black Americans, even a century after their so-called liberation. 

The Emancipation Proclamation was a document written by Abraham Lincoln and issued on the first of January, 1863. The purpose of the document was to emancipate, or free, all enslaved people in the Confederate South. The Proclamation strengthened the attitudes of the American people that the Civil War was one fought for the right to freedom-- alternately, a war fought for the "right" to own humans as property and a source of labor. Unfortunately, the Proclamation only liberated enslaved people in the Confederate states. Slaves in the border states or those southern states which had been captured by the north were not liberated by the Proclamation. Though the Emancipation Proclamation is a historic document and an important text for human rights scholars, it remains problematic for the fact that it did not liberate all enslaved Americans.

What are the figures of speech in "Ozymandias?"

Although "figures of speech" can be considered broadly to include both poetic (sound) techniques as well as non-literal language, this answer is restricted to figures of speech that are non-literal language.

There are two instances of synecdoche in the poem. With synecdoche, a writer uses a part of the thing to represent the whole. Thus "the hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed" uses two parts of the king, his hand and his heart, to represent him. 

The use of the word "antique" in line 1 could be considered hyperbole. Hyperbole is an exaggeration for effect. The word "antique" can mean "something belonging to ancient times." In literal terms, a land cannot belong to ancient times. If the land exists in the present, it "belongs" in the present, so to call a land "antique" is an exaggeration, but it conveys the idea that the land was more important in ancient days. 

The idea that the "shattered visage" is able to "tell" about the sculptor is personification, which imparts human characteristics to inanimate objects. The visage is unable to communicate with words, so it literally cannot "tell" anything. The word "tell" is also a pun, or a play on words. Although the statue cannot "tell" the viewer anything, the viewer can "tell" from the statue certain things about the king. This is a different meaning of "tell," meaning to determine, but is suggested by the way in which it is used here.

The word "decay" implies a metaphor. Although structures can be said to "decay" when they deteriorate, decay more often brings to mind the destruction of organic matter by bacteria and other creatures. Just as this structure has toppled, so the king's body has decayed and decomposed long ago. The broken statue is a metaphor, or comparison, to the dead king. 

The word "colossal" might be considered both an allusion and a tautology. Although the word means simply "extremely large," it is derived from "colossus," which means a giant statue and was first used by Herodotus to describe the statues in ancient Egyptian temples. Thus it can be an allusion, a reference to a historical or mythical person or event. It also calls to mind the Rhodes Colossus, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world that was destroyed in an earthquake. So to call the wrecked statue a "colossal Wreck" could be like saying it is a "wrecked statue Wreck," making it a tautology, a way of saying the same thing with different words.

Although not captured in any specific line, the entire poem has an air of understatement and irony. The fact that no judgment is stated about the described scene but that it is left to speak for itself is understatement. Understatement deliberately makes something less important than it is. This scene is obviously quite impressive and meaningful, yet the meaning is not overtly stated. Irony represents a turn of events that is the opposite of what is expected. In this poem, the powerful king inspired fear in his day, but now his "Works" are nowhere to be seen. 

These figures of speech, examples of non-literal language, in "Ozymandias" give it a very rich meaning.

What is brain damage?

Causes and Symptoms

Brain
damage can occur as a result of several causes. Therefore, physicians have found it helpful to categorize the types of injuries that most often lead to the death of brain
cells. The most common type that leads to brain damage is the closed head injury. It occurs when a problem, such as the disruption of blood flow to the brain, prevents vital oxygen and nutrients from reaching the cells that make up the brain. If the brain is deprived of oxygen and glucose for more than six or seven seconds, then a person usually becomes unconscious and brain cells begin to die.

Accidents such as automobile collisions, falls, and sports injuries can lead to brain damage by causing the brain to bleed inside the cranium. This kind of closed head injury frequently results in brain swelling that puts pressure on delicate structures, preventing them from working properly and sometimes leading to permanent damage. Strokes
also result in brain damage either by blocking normal blood flow within the arteries that feed the brain or by causing a blood vessel to break and leak blood into surrounding tissue.

When brain damage occurs, symptoms may include motor control problems, paralysis, and difficulty with balance and the integration of sensory information. In the case of an accident that leads to brain damage, it would not be uncommon to see cognitive functions affected, creating speech and language difficulties, memory loss, and problems with concentration and attention. Problems with motivation and the expression of emotions may develop, and to some degree a person’s personality can be altered because of brain damage. In cases of extensive damage, the result could be loss of consciousness, coma, and even death.

Treatment and Therapy

Treatment for brain damage begins with an assessment of the cause and extent of the injury. Several distinct technologies can be used to image not only the structures of the brain but the functioning of specific areas as well. If bleeding or swelling of the brain is suspected, then a computed tomography (CT) scan can be used to provide pictures of the brain to assess which structures are implicated. If a tumor or areas of localized damage is suspected, then magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is more helpful because of its ability to create a clear, well-defined image.

Specialized neuropsychological tests are used to determine the extent of deficits in thinking—such as language processing, memory, and decision making—as well as in sensory perception and motor functioning. Visual diagnostics alone usually cannot determine the specific impact on mental processes and specific functions. Neuropsychological procedures, often administered in a particular array, or test battery, along with visual imaging, provide the best appreciation for how the damage affects brain function.

Since there are several different causes of brain damage, treatments can vary. Drug therapy can be used in instances where the brain is being damaged by swelling or when an artery inside the brain is partially blocked. High doses of antibiotics can be used when damage occurs as a result of a bacterial infection. If a weakened artery is found that is leaking blood into the brain or a tumor is detected using an MRI, then surgery could be recommended. In instances where no immediate treatment can be performed, specific rehabilitation therapies are used to stimulate surviving brain tissue that is near the injury to take over some of the functioning of the damaged tissue.

Perspective and Prospects

Although brain injuries have occurred since the beginning of humankind, the question of what the brain does and how it contributes to behavior has only been partially answered. There is evidence from human skull remains that small holes were drilled as a form of crude brain surgery as far back as 2000 BCE. The purpose of the procedure is unknown; however, it could have helped an injured person by relieving brain swelling. Prior to the first century CE, it was not widely accepted that the brain was the center for reasoning, emotions, and movement. During early human history, the heart was believed to control the thoughts and emotions. Galen of Pergamum (130–201 CE), a Roman physician, was influential in bringing forth the notion that the brain, and not the heart, gave rise to behavior. He learned much about the brain and its impact on behavior by observing injured gladiators who survived fierce battles in the Roman coliseum.

Prospects for future therapies to compensate for brain damage include stem cell tissue transplantation to stimulate new brain cell development. Better drugs are being developed for stroke victims whose blood has leaked into the brain and had begun killing nearby cells. Also, brain imaging technologies are continuing to be refined to produce clearer pictures that allow practitioners to make more accurate diagnoses.

Bibliography:

Brain Injury Association of America. "Diagnosing Brain Injury." Brain Injury Association of America, 2013.

Cooper, Paul R., and John G. Golfinos, eds. Head Injury. 4th ed. New York: McGraw, 2000.

Dallas, Mary Elizabeth. "HealthDay: Brain Imaging Detects Tiny Lesions Related to Mild Injury: Study." MedlinePlus, Mar. 12, 2013.

Gronwall, Dorothy, Philip Wrightson, and Peter Waddell. Head Injury: The Facts—A Guide for Families and Care-Givers. 2d ed. New York: Oxford UP, 1998.

Landau, Elaine. Head and Brain Injuries. Berkeley Heights, N.J.: Enslow, 2002.

How are foreshadowing and foreboding used in the novel Frankenstein?

One of the most dramatic examples of foreboding and foreshadowing in the novel occurs when the monster tells Victor "I will be with you on your wedding night." This happens at a point where the monster has grown bitter and hateful, cursing his ugly appearance which belies his strong intellect and depth of emotional sensitivity. He is angry at Victor for having created him, and Victor feels too much sympathy for the monster to destroy him. He tries to create a female companion for the monster, but this ends in disaster.

This line has been said by numerous scholars to contain hints of underlying themes of latent homosexuality, in that the monster is a shadow image of Victor, created by him but given an ugly appearance, that contains truths he would rather not face. One idea that has been explored is that the creation of life from death suggests an end of human sexual reproduction, or, put another way, a possible world where men can exist without women. The line also suggests the monster is a constant source of worry and dread for Victor, and the idea that the monster will be with him on his wedding night hints  that Victor's marriage to Elizabeth may be haunted by Victor's conflicted sexuality.

The line "I will be with you on your wedding night," repeated ominously by the monster, also suggests that Elizabeth is a barrier to their own sexual union. Victor does not know that the monster is planning to murder Elizabeth in their marriage bed--this is perhaps the most potent example of foreshadowing in the entire story. (Interestingly, the stage play production by Danny Boyle adapted from this novel portrays this scene in brutal terms: the monster first rapes Elizabeth before he strangles her.) 

Did Uncle Tom’s Cabin create the conditions that started the Civil War? What does David S. Reynolds think?

Whether President Abraham Lincoln did, in fact, say to Harriet Beecher Stowe, “so, you’re the little woman who wrote the book that started this great war,” will never be known for certain. Uncle Tom’s Cabin did not create the conditions that brought about the Civil War. The causes of that conflict transcended to a certain degree the issue of slavery, although slavery was the single greatest most important issue as it constituted the principle benefit to the American South of that vast region’s struggle for greater states’ rights and less, far less, authority for the central, or federal, government in Washington, D.C. Stowe’s novel about slavery was a pro-abolitionist tract, and established caricatures that remain a part of American popular culture today (e.g., the pejorative use of the phrase “Uncle Tom,” the dastardly character of Simon Legree, which became synonymous with cartoonish villains). The road to war, however, was firmly established much earlier than the 1852 publication of Uncle Tom’s Cabin. That road, as students of the American Revolution and the debates over federalism and states’ rights know, began with the struggle for independence from the British Crown. In a very real sense, the Civil War was the inevitable result of unfinished business from the Revolutionary War era. The Founding Fathers chose to kick that proverbial can down-the-road, so to speak, lest its seemingly intractable nature interfere with the higher priority of establishing a new nation. In any event, Stowe’s novel, while influential, cannot really be said to have caused the war. It may, however, have lit the fuse that resulted in the first shots being fired at Fort Sumter.

David S. Reynolds, in his study of Harriet Beecher Stowe, her novel, and the book’s impact on American culture and politics, Mightier than the Sword: Uncle Tom’s Cabin and the Battle for America, is meticulously researched, and well-reasoned. And, its thesis, that Stowe’s book did have tremendous influence on the debate over slavery, and that influence was instrumental in moving the nation towards civil war, is not without merit. As noted, nobody has been able to confirm whether President Lincoln said those famous words upon meeting Stowe at the White House. What we do know, and what Reynolds does quote Lincoln as saying, is that “our government rests in public opinion. Whoever can change public opinion can change the government.” Reynolds argues eloquently that the popularity of Uncle Tom’s Cabin strongly influenced public opinion, at least in the North, against the institution of slavery, while provoking the ire of the novel’s critics in the South who rightly saw it as an attack upon their prerogatives. Toward this end, Reynolds devotes copious space to his discussion of precisely how popular was the novel, noting that the “production and distribution of the novel was considered a massive achievement, facilitated by recent technological advances.” Later, Reynolds writes that “the novel demonstrably had a key role in the political reshuffling that lay behind the rise of the antislavery Republican Party. . .As the novel’s stature grew in antislavery circles, enhanced by the growing popularity of the Uncle Tom plays and other tie-ins, it gave strong impetus to antislavery politics in the North.”

In short, Uncle Tom’s Cabin was hugely popular, including in important political circles, and its depictions of the treatment of slaves sensitized more than the question of slavery as an abstract concept ever could the political leaders best positioned to act on those sentiments. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel did not cause the Civil War. It did radically increase sympathy for the abolitionist cause, which, in turn, emboldened Lincoln to press ahead in taking vitally-important steps he otherwise might have hesitated in taking.

A woman with type A blood has two children, one with O and one with B blood. What type of blood must the father have? Give the genotypes of the...

Blood type is determined by what antigen (protein) type is found on the surface of red blood cells. Type A people have A antigens on their red blood cells, type B have B antigens, people with type AB blood have both, and those with type O have neither. Your question is about the genotypes involved. Type A individuals may have either AA or AO genotype. Type B can have BB or BO. Those with AB have received the allele for A from one parent and for B from the other (and their genotype is AB), and type O have received two copies of the allele for O (genotype OO).

Because the woman's children are type O and type B and the mother has type A, we know that the mother's genotype is AO; she has given the O gene to both children, as neither has A antigens. One child is type O, and therefore received the allele for O from both parents. We can therefore determine that one of the alleles in the father genotype is also for the O antigen. Because the other child is type B and received an O allele from the mother, the B must come from the father; the father is genotype  BO, and he has type B blood.

In sum: mother is type A blood, genotype AO.  Father is type B, genotype BO. Child 1 is type O, genotype OO. Child 2 is type B, genotype BO.

`2 + 7 + 12 + 17 + .... (5n - 3) = (n/2)(5n - 1)` Use mathematical induction to prove the formula for every positive integer n.

You need to use mathematical induction to prove the formula for every positive integer n, hence, you need to perform the two steps of the method, such that:

Step 1: Basis: Show that the statement P(n) hold for n = 1, such that:

`2 = 1/2*(5*1-1) => 2 =4/2 => 2=2`

Step 2: Inductive step: Show that if P(k) holds, then also P(k + 1) holds:

`P(k): 2 + 7 + .. + (5k-3) = (k(5k-1))/2` holds

`P(k+1):  2 + 7 + .. + (5k-3) + (5k+2) =  ((k+1)(5k+4))/2`

You need to use induction hypothesis that P(k) holds, hence, you need to re-write the left side, such that:

` (k(5k-1))/2 + (5k+2) = ((k+1)(5k+4))/2`

`5k^2 - k + 10k + 4 = 5k^2 + 4k + 5k + 4`

You need to add the like terms, such that:

`5k^2 + 9k + 4 = 5k^2 + 9k + 4`

Notice that P(k+1) holds.

Hence, since both the basis and the inductive step have been verified, by mathematical induction, the statement `P(n): 2 + 7 + .. + (5n-3)= (n(5n-1))/2`  holds for all positive integers n.

What is color blindness?

Causes and Symptoms

The retina of the eye is a thin, fragile membrane that contains millions of photoreceptor
cells. They convert light energy into an electrical signal, which is transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. On a microscopic scale, the structure of the retina is like a carpet with its many fibers sticking upward. There are two types of photoreceptor cells, called rods and cones because of their distinctive shapes. Only the cones are important for color vision. There are three varieties of cones with peak sensitivities for red, green, and blue, respectively. The shades and tints of all other colors are mixtures of these three.

Color blindness involves a deficiency in these photoreceptor cells. A deficiency of green photoreceptor cells is much more common than a deficiency of red photoreceptors. Some people are totally color-blind, which means that they are completely unable to distinguish among red, orange, yellow, and green. Color blindness is quite rare in females (less than 1 percent of the population) but is more prevalent in males (about 8 percent).

Diagnostic tests are available to determine the extent of color blindness. The Ishihara color test, named after a Japanese ophthalmologist, consists of a mosaic of colored dots containing a letter of the alphabet made up of dots of a different color—for example, yellow dots in a background of green ones. Color-blind individuals would be unable to distinguish the letter because yellow and green look the same to them.

A more precise diagnostic test makes use of the Nagel anomaloscope, which has two colored light sources whose brightness can be adjusted. The patient tries to match a given color by superimposing the two light beams while varying their intensities. For normal eyes, red and green lights of similar intensities can be superimposed to create yellow. However, a patient who requires a considerably larger green component to create yellow evidently has a deficiency of green photoreceptor cells.

Treatment and Therapy

Color blindness is a genetic defect from birth, not a disease. No procedure is known by which it can be corrected. Color-blind people must find ways to counter the effects of their condition. For example, they can obtain driver’s licenses because they learn that stoplights are always red on top, yellow in the middle, and green on the bottom. Color-blind individuals may need help, however, with tasks such as clothing selection. Good color discrimination is required for some occupations, such as interior decorating, graphic design, advertising, or airplane piloting. Fortunately, color blindness is not a deterrent for most jobs.

Bibliography:

Cameron, John R., James G. Skofronick, and Roderick M. Grant. Medical Physics: Physics of the Body. Madison, Wis.: Medical Physics, 1992.

"Color Blindness." MedlinePlus, June 1, 2011.

Kasper, Dennis L., et al., eds. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. 18th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012.

Stresing, Diane. "Color Blindness." Health Library, March 15, 2013.

“Vision.” In Encyclopaedia Brittanica. 15th ed. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2002.

What is rhubarb as a dietary supplement?

Overview

The stalk of the intensely flavored rhubarb plant has been used in European cooking since the seventeenth century. Before this time, rhubarb species were utilized medicinally in traditional Chinese herbal medicine. Traditional uses include treatment of constipation, diarrhea, fever, menstrual problems, jaundice, sores (when applied topically), ulcers, and burns. Although there are many species of rhubarb, the one most studied is Rheum rhaponticum.

Uses and Applications

Rhubarb root contains lindleyin, a substance with estrogen-like properties. On this basis, extracts of rhubarb have been tried for the control of menopausal symptoms. In a twelve-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 109 women with menopause-related symptoms, the use of a standardized R. rhaponticum extract significantly improved symptoms compared with placebo. Improvements were particularly seen in rate and severity of hot flashes. While this is meaningful supporting evidence, additional independent trials are necessary to establish that this rhubarb extract is a safe and effective treatment for menopause.

Other potential uses of rhubarb lack reliable supporting evidence. One human trial purportedly found evidence that rhubarb could reduce the impairment of lung function that may occur when people with lung cancer receive radiation therapy. However, this study had a number of significant flaws, and its results cannot be regarded as reliable.

In another human trial, this one using a cream containing sage and rhubarb, researchers failed to find more than modest benefits for the treatment of herpes. Additional proposed uses of rhubarb are supported only by test-tube studies. For example, various rhubarb species have shown hints of potential value for the treatment of diabetes, kidney disease, liver disease, allergies, and pancreatitis. However, the vast majority of effects seen in test-tube studies do not recur in human trials.

Dosage

A typical dosage of rhubarb root is one-half to one teaspoonful of the root boiled for ten minutes in a cup of water, three times daily. In the foregoing menopause study, a standardized extract was used. Such extracts should be used according to label instructions.

Safety Issues

As a widely consumed food, rhubarb is thought to be relatively safe if consumed in moderation. However, the plant contains high levels of oxalic acid, and rhubarb consumption can markedly increase oxalic acid levels in the urine. This could lead to increased risk of kidney stones and other problems. Rhubarb leaf contains the highest oxalic acid content. The roots and stems contain less oxalic acid but higher levels of anthraquinones, laxative substances similar to those found in senna or cascara. It is safest to use rhubarb standardized extracts that have been processed to remove oxalic acid.

Contrary to some reports, consumption of rhubarb probably does not impair calcium absorption. Weak evidence hints that excessive consumption of rhubarb could increase the risk of stomach or colon cancer. Maximum safe doses in pregnant or nursing women, young children, and people with severe liver or kidney disease have not been established.

Bibliography

Choi, S. Z., et al. “Antidiabetic Stilbene and Anthraquinone Derivatives from Rheum undulatum.” Archives of Pharmacy Research 28 (2005): 1027-1030.

Heger, M., et al. “Efficacy and Safety of a Special Extract of Rheum rhaponticum (ERr 731) in Perimenopausal Women with Climacteric Complaints.” Menopause 13 (2006): 744-759.

Vollmer, G., A. Papke, and O. Zierau. “Treatment of Menopausal Symptoms by an Extract from the Roots of Rhapontic Rhubarb: The Role of Estrogen Receptors.” Chinese Medicine 5 (2010): 7.

Yu, H. M., et al. “Effects of Rhubarb Extract on Radiation Induced Lung Toxicity via Decreasing Transforming Growth Factor-Beta-1 and Interleukin-6 in Lung Cancer Patients Treated with Radiotherapy.” Lung Cancer 59 (2008): 219-226.

Zhao, Y. Q., et al. “Protective Effects of Rhubarb on Experimental Severe Acute Pancreatitis.” World Journal of Gastroenterology 10 (2004): 1005-1009.

What is the relationship between birds and infectious disease?

Definition

Wild and domestic birds are at risk for infections with pathogens
that may lead to disease in other birds and in humans. Each type of bird may carry
infections that lead to different clinical diseases. Wild birds have adapted to
urban environmental settings, increasing the risk of domestic infections.

Even though infections may be spread from birds to humans, a resulting human illness is rare. Newborns, young children, and immunocompromised persons are at greatest risk for disease transmission.

Avian Flu

Avian
flu, or bird flu, is typically found in asymptomatic wild birds.
However, domestic birds such as farm chickens and ducks may become sick and spread the disease through saliva or
droppings. The avian flu does not pass easily from bird to human or from human to
human. Typically, the avian flu is spread to pigs and other animals that can
contract both bird and human flu strains. The bird and human flu strains combine
to form a new mutant strain to which humans are susceptible. The avian flu is
caused by strain H5N1.

Mild symptoms resemble the seasonal flu: fever, sore throat, and muscle aches. More severe symptoms include eye infection and pneumonia and other respiratory difficulties. The risk for mortality is high because humans have no immunity to the avian flu strains. More than one-half of all persons who have been diagnosed with the avian flu have died.

Certain antiviral medications are effective, but the seasonal influenza vaccine
cannot protect against avian flu. Newer vaccine combinations appear promising.

West Nile Virus

West Nile virus is a flavivirus that is spread by a mosquito that first bites an infected bird and then, newly infected, bites a
human. West Nile
virus was first documented in the United States in 1999, and
it spread rapidly. Urban communities have a higher risk than rural populations.
Symptoms may be mild, with a rash, muscle weakness, and flulike symptoms, or they
may be more severe, with meningitis, encephalitis,
or a lack of cognitive clarity.

In 2004, 2,200 human cases were reported; 73 of these cases ended in death.
Although the virus is not as prevalent in the human population now as it was
during the original outbreak, West Nile virus remains a subject of medical
research. Scientists continue to work on identifying the types of birds that carry
the disease and on what mechanism causes the disease to infect both humans and
birds. Antibiotics are not effective, and antiviral medication
trials are ongoing.

Bacterial Infections

Psittacosis
. Parrots and parakeets often carry the bacterium Chlamydophila psittaci. The disease is rare in humans; only a few hundred cases are reported each year in the United States. Veterinarians, pet-store employees, and bird owners between the age of thirty and sixty years are at greatest risk; the disease is rarely reported in children. Symptoms are usually flulike, with a cough, and are treated with antibiotics. Rarely, the presentation is more severe and includes pneumonia, infection of the heart, hepatitis, and death.

Salmonellosis. Baby chicks and ducklings often have the bacterium
Salmonella in their intestines, hence they shed it in their
droppings. Salmonella is also found on the feathers and beaks of
birds. Chicks will not typically display signs of infection. Humans may develop
salmonellosis either by holding the bird or by touching a
contaminated object. Children are at greatest risk because of their improper
handwashing technique and because of their tendency to put their fingers in their
mouths after petting birds. Persons who are immunocompromised, elderly, or
pregnant should avoid touching birds, especially chicks and ducklings.
Salmonellosis results in diarrhea, fever, stomach pain, and other flulike symptoms
within a few days of exposure. The symptoms typically resolve within one week.

Fungal Diseases

Cryptococcosis. Cryptococcosis is a disease transmitted to humans from pigeons and chickens. The fungi Cryptococcus neoformans, which causes
the disease, is found in soil droppings or in roosts, such as in attics and on
ledges. Inhaling the spores causes the disease. Infections are usually
asymptomatic or mild and include flulike symptoms, a cough, and a skin rash. In
more severe forms, infection in the lungs may spread to the central nervous system
and cause brain damage or become fatal. Cryptococcosis is treated with antifungal
medication.

Histoplasmosis. Histoplasmosis, a disease transmitted to humans commonly from pigeons, starlings, blackbirds, and bats, is caused by the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum.
Humans may contract the disease by inhaling air near affected soil, near roosts
that have been maintained for several years, or near droppings (from bats). The
spores may be airborne too and can travel great distances. Construction workers,
gardeners, and those in other outdoor occupations
are at highest risk because of the disruption of soil at work sites.
Infections are typically mild with flulike symptoms. Rarely, the infection may
lead to fever, blindness, and death. Young children, the elderly, and persons with
lung disease are at greatest risk for these more significant symptoms.

Impact

Perhaps the greatest impact to global public health and the world economy can be found in the experiences of the bird flu pandemic of 1997. For example, government officials in Hong Kong who feared outbreaks and a significant number of deaths had ordered the slaughter of all poultry in that region (about 1.5 million birds) within three days. This slaughter led to economic problems in Hong Kong and elsewhere. The virus spread rapidly to other Asian countries, and with bird migration, the disease spread to Europe.

Continuing research into vaccines and proper education about bird handling and care are vital to reducing the amount of human infections and preventing avian-disease-related pandemics. However, a balance should exist between preserving the wild and domestic bird populations and protecting humans.

Bibliography

Clark, Larry, and Jeffrey Hall. “Avian Influenza in Wild Birds: Status as Reservoirs and Risks to Humans and Agriculture.” In Current Topics in Avian Disease Research: Understanding Endemic and Invasive Diseases, edited by Rosemary K. Barraclough. Washington, D.C.: American Ornithologists’ Union, 2006. A good outline of the problem. Also considers human health, agricultural concerns, and the potential effect on wild bird populations.

Krauss, Hartmut, et al. Zoonoses: Infectious Diseases Transmissible from Animals to Humans. 3d ed. Washington, D.C.: ASM Press, 2003. Explores the myriad infections introduced by human-animal contact.

Ligon, B. “Avian Influenza Virus H5N1: A Review of Its History and Information Regarding Its Potential to Cause the Next Pandemic.” Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases 16 (2005): 326-335. Examines the history of the bird flu and its possible future effects on global health.

Marquardt, William C., ed. Biology of Disease Vectors. 2d ed. New York: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2005. A biology text examining disease vectors, including bats and wild and domestic birds. Written for graduate students and researchers, but accessible to general readers.

National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians. “Compendium of Measures to Control Chlamydophila psittaci Infection Among Humans (Psittacosis) and Pet Birds (Avian Chlamydiosis).” 2010. Available at http://www.nasphv.org/documents/psittacosis.pdf.

Thomas, Nancy J., D. Bruce Hunter, and Carter T. Atkinson, eds. Infectious Diseases of Wild Birds. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell, 2007. A detailed description of the health risks to birds, other animals, and humans from avian-related infectious diseases.

How is the theme of hope explored in "The Darkling Thrush?"

After three stanzas describing relentless hopelessness in a blighted landscape of death, desolation and "winter's dregs," the poet hears the sound of a thrush singing. The aged bird is "caroling" with great joy. The poet hears the hope in the sound of the bird's "ecstatic" song, and wonders where it can possibly come from. The poet hears the hope but can't feel it: he is "unaware" of it. Unlike an earlier Romantic poet, such as Wordsworth, this poet isn't uplifted by the natural world and doesn't feel at one with or healed or comforted by the bird's song. The bird only highlights the man's sense of hopelessness and alienation.

Hardy is a writer known for his fatalism: this poem reflects that sensibility. As far as the poet is concerned, he can't construct meaning from the bird's song and can't understand the bird's hope. 

In the first line of the poem ''To the doctor who treated the raped baby and who felt such despair,'' the speaker asserts that he/she is speaking...

Your question is a very good one.  Whenever you read poetry, it is important to note every single word and to understand the meaning and the context. 

There are clues throughout the poem to answer your question about the meaning of the phrase, "on behalf of us all."

First, the "us" appears to mean members of the family of the baby in question. 

In line 8 and line 11, there are references to the baby's mother.

Line 14 refers to "a bleary-eyed uncle."

Line 18 refers to the "grandpa who walked up and down with a colicky crier."

Line 21 reports that "a father sat watch."

If you try to imagine the scene, the injured baby has been taken to the doctor, and the poem's speaker is talking about the whole family who is concerned.  Each of these references lists some action that different family members usually take in the welfare of a baby -- changing it, walking with it, feeding it.  This gives the impression that this is a close-knit, caring family  that needs to work together.

In the closing four lines, the reference to "us" and "we" is repeated, but this time it seems different.  This time, the "rest of us" and "we slept in trust" seem to have a broader application, suggesting that the whole world sleeps better knowing that there are doctors like this one, ready to sacrifice themselves to help innocents like this baby.

How can Offred's story be viewed as a "journey?"

I think that, first and foremost, you need to think about how you would define a "journey."

If a journey is a simple, linear path forward, with no deviations or regressions, then Offred's experience is absolutely not a journey. Before the war, and the rise of Gilead, she was a relatively successful woman with a husband and child; after, she is a slave with no rights, no future, and no clear escape route. She has really lost everything, including her name (she is now "Of Fred"). In the beginning of the novel, she tells us about her age and appearance, as if to try and preserve what little she has left.

However, we also know that the Republic of Gilead does fall, as Offred's story is being recounted to us (somewhat callously) by professors at an academic talk. While we will never know for sure, it seems quite possible that Offred did escape, and that she may have gone on to live a better life. Still, this is not a journey; at best, Offred was able to regain her former standard of living.

If, however, we define a "journey" as personal growth, or as perseverance through adversity, then Offred's experience surely qualifies. Offred lost everything; she was enslaved and abused; she even contemplates suicide at the climax of the novel, when she is taken away by the "Eyes." However, Offred perseveres, and decides to live on in the hope that the "Eyes" are really the resistance. Despite the incredible amount of abuse and indoctrination she has been subjected to, Offred retains her self-worth, and her will to overcome.

Malik is forty-two years old and has worked for a sales company for over seven years. He took his current job after he completed his MBA (Master of...

In the scenario provided, Malik's short-term goals are to establish himself professionally within the business world, having completed his graduate work in Business Administration, and to assist his ailing mother financially. The scenario as outlined mentions that Malik's mother was diagnosed with an aggressive form of cancer, and that she is dependent upon her Social Security annuities to survive. Costs associated with catastrophic medical conditions, such as many forms of cancer, are astronomical and tax the resources of much more affluent individuals than is apparently the case with Malik's mother. Her medical bills, therefore, are proving extremely difficult to pay, and Malik wants to help his mother pay those bills. These, then, are his two main short-term goals. 

Malik's long-term goal provides the bulk of the information provided in the scenario. The scenario notes that he deposits 10 percent of his gross income into a retirement fund, and that the company for which he works matches those contributions up to the first three percent. This information is provided so that the student can arrive at the logical conclusion that securing a financially-comfortable retirement constitutes at least one of Malik's long-term goals.

Malik is already dedicating himself to certain of the activities needed to achieve his goals. His commitment to higher education, evident in his completion of the requirements for a Master's in Business Administration degree, constitutes an important step towards his short- and long-term goals. As noted, his contributions into his retirement account of 10 percent of his gross income is a very wise investment. The challenge, however, is to choose wisely the distribution of those contributions among the various investment categories generally offered by retirement fund managers. These categories, or options, include domestic and foreign stock markets, lower-yield but lower-risk money market options, and simple low-interest-bearing savings accounts. A prudent investor has a diversified portfolio so as to protect against dramatic perturbations in one or more of these categories. 

Not provided in the scenario is whether Malik has taken steps, if possible, to claim his mother as a dependent for tax purposes. Does he have a living father, and, if so, are his parents still married? If the father is deceased, and the mother is financially dependent upon Malik, then he can use that as a means of reducing his taxes, which would ease the burden on him of contributing to her medical expenses.

There are few situations more emotionally and financially draining than being the principal caregiver for a loved one. The scenario provides insufficient information, for example, are there siblings or other relatives who can help pay the medical bills for his mother? Assuming that Malik is an only child, contributing financially to his mother's medical care is very financially-burdensome, so he should arrange to set-aside a certain percentage of his net income for that purpose. It is possible that he will have to lower by two or three percent the amount of his contribution into his retirement fund, as the medical bills can otherwise prove impossible to pay. There is often a trade-off between short-term financial requirements or responsibilities and longer-term financial objectives. Malik has to sit down, do the math, and determine how best to balance near- and long-term obligations.

What is men's health?

Overview

The use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for managing men’s health
is increasing worldwide. A survey released in December of 2008 by the
National
Institutes of Health found that 33.5 percent of men use some
form of complementary or alternative medicine. In North America, about 30 percent
of men diagnosed with prostate disease use some form of CAM therapy.

Many dietary, phytotherapeutic, supplemental, and herbal agents have been used to prevent or treat prostate cancer, benign prostate hyperplasia, erectile dysfunction, and male infertility, but the role of CAM in managing men’s health conditions continues to be debated. If CAM is evaluated by criteria of evidence-based medicine, available data have not clearly established the efficacy of many alternative agents. Different extraction procedures, variations in the quality of raw products, and the lack of knowledge regarding mechanisms of action of active ingredients make comparisons between various products virtually impossible and lead to conflicting results in clinical trials. Nonetheless, many health care professionals believe that when used properly, CAM can be beneficial in improving men’s health.

Prostate Cancer

Prostate
cancer is the most common cancer diagnosed in men and the
second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in men in the United States. No
complementary or alternative treatments will cure prostate cancer, but several CAM
alternatives may be helpful in preventing the disease. CAM therapies present
valuable opportunities for prostate cancer, particularly in the watchful waiting
population. A June 2010, survey revealed that more than one-third of recently
diagnosed persons with prostate cancer utilize some form of CAM therapy.

Foods that protect against prostate cancer. Several types of
foods have shown potential for preventing prostate cancer. Of special interest are
soy and soy products. Epidemiological data show a ten- to one-hundred-times lower
incidence of prostate cancer in Asia, compared with Western countries. Soy
products are a traditional staple in the diets of Eastern countries, suggesting
that nutrition plays an important role in prostate cancer prevention. Legumes such
as soybeans are rich in a variety of phytochemicals and are rich in
isoflavones such as genistein and
several other anticarcinogens that inhibit the growth of prostate cancer
cells.

Lycopene, a carotenoid found mainly in tomatoes and
tomato-derived products, has been shown in a number of clinical studies to have
protective effects against the development of prostate cancer. Lycopene is an
acyclic isomer of beta-carotene, and its most important anticancer property may be
its strong antioxidant activity.

Cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and broccoli have been shown to possess anticancer activities, possibly because of the substances they contain, such as indole-3-carbinol, glucaric acid, and sulforaphane, and because of their high concentration of the carotenoids lutein and zeaxantin.

The role of dietary supplements. The effectiveness of selenium in preventing prostate cancer has been the subject of numerous clinical trials, and different trials have yielded conflicting results concerning this trace element’s protective efficacy. It is thought that selenium’s antioxidant properties may help repair deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), prevent cell invasion, and stimulate the signaling of transforming growth factor beta.

The Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Trial, which studied 1,312 men with low
selenium levels, found a 63 percent reduction in prostate cancer incidence in men
supplemented with selenium, compared with placebo. The men showed a 49 percent
lower risk of prostate cancer through a seven-plus-year follow-up period. Reaching
opposite conclusions, the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial of 35,000
men concluded that selenium and vitamin E, taken alone or together, do not prevent
prostate cancer.

The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Trial studied the protective
effects of vitamin E and beta-carotene in 29,133 male smokers age fifty to
sixty-nine. In this trial, vitamin E supplementation led to a 32
percent reduction in prostate cancer incidence and a 41 percent decrease in
prostate cancer deaths.

Herbal therapy. Interest has been growing in the use of herbs in
preventing prostate cancer. Among these agents, the catechins in green tea
have shown encouraging results. In a one-year trial, men with precancerous changes
in the prostate received green tea extract providing 600 milligrams of catechins
per day, or a placebo. Prostate cancer developed in 3.3 percent of the men
receiving green tea extract and in 30 percent of those given a placebo.

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

CAM therapies have also been useful in treating benign prostatic hyperplasia
(BPH), an affliction that eventually affects at least 80
percent of men after age fifty. BPH is not related to cancer and is more
bothersome than dangerous. The cause is thought to be related to variations in
levels of hormones such as dihydrotestosterone or estrogen (or
both), causing enlargement of the prostate, which partially blocks the urethra and
hinders urinary voiding.

Some nutraceuticals have produced results equal to or better than
pharmaceuticals prescribed to treat BPH. Several meta-analyses suggest clinical
efficacy and good tolerability for extracts from Serenoa repens
(saw palmetto), Pygeum africanum (from the bark of the African
plum tree), stinging nettle, and pumpkin seeds.

Saw
palmetto extract, derived from the fruit of S.
repens, the American dwarf palm, is the botanical best studied and
most used to treat symptoms of BPH. It appears to contain substances that have
activity similar to (but weaker than) 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors, which prevent
conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone. Some studies have found that
the efficacy of S. repens extract is comparable to that of
finasteride and alpha-blockers.

Extract of the bark of the African plum tree P. africanum
moderately improves urinary symptoms associated with BPH. Numerous studies report
that pygeum significantly reduces urinary hesitancy, frequency,
nocturia, and pain with urination in men with mild to moderate symptoms.

Clinical studies have shown that pumpkin seed oil (Cucurbita pepo), in combination with saw palmetto, effectively reduces symptoms of BPH. Researchers have suggested that the zinc, free fatty acid, or plant sterol content of pumpkin seeds may account for their efficacy.

Stinging nettle root (Urtica dioica), in combination with other herbs (especially saw palmetto), is effective in relieving symptoms of BPH. Clinical studies have shown stinging nettle to be comparable to finasteride in slowing the growth of certain prostate cells. Unlike finasteride, however, the herb does not decrease prostate size.

Erectile Dysfunction

The inability of men to achieve or maintain an erection sufficient for
satisfactory sexual function can have considerable impact on interpersonal
relationships and quality of life. According to Douglas MacKay, writing in
Alternative Medicine Review, erectile
dysfunction (ED) affects 50 percent of men forty to seventy
years of age in the United States; by extrapolation, about thirty million men in
the United States are affected. While prescription drugs have proven valuable in
managing ED, they are not without limitations.

Over the centuries, many products have been touted as enhancing male vigor and libido. While the effectiveness of many of these substances cannot be adequately confirmed, arginine, yohimbine, Panax ginseng, and Ginkgo biloba all provide some degree of evidence that they are helpful for treating ED.

Nitric oxide (NO) is intimately related to penile erections. When a man becomes aroused, NO secretion begins in the blood vessels that lead into the penis, allowing the vessels to relax and widen to allow an increased flow of blood to enter the penis and harden it. NO levels decline as men age, resulting in ED. L-arginine, an amino acid found in muscle and cell tissues, is the biological precursor of NO. The formation of NO depends on sufficient levels of L-arginine in the body. L-arginine supplementation is particularly effective for treating men with abnormal NO metabolism, and most clinical trials have shown positive treatment results, often doubling levels of vascular NO.

Derived from the bark of an African evergreen tree (Corynanthe
yohimbe or Pausinystalia yohimbe), yohimbine (also
known as yohimbe) is regulated as a drug in some countries, where it
is pharmacologically classified as an alpha-2-adrenergic receptor antagonist. As
such, it blocks brain receptors involved in releasing norepinephrine in the
genitals. Norepinephrine is the principal neurotransmitter involved in the
vascular smooth muscle contraction that reduces penile blood flow, ending an
erection. Therefore, blocking norepinephrine receptors helps prolong tumescence.
Yohimbine increases the amount of blood that is allowed to flow into the penis and
prevents it from flowing out.

For more than two millennia, P. ginseng has been used by Chinese healers for its restorative properties. Modern scientists have identified active constituents, including triterpene saponin glycosides known as ginsenosides, which may be responsible for some of ginseng’s antioxidant and health-preserving properties. Ginsenosides have been shown to increase the release of NO, and preliminary studies suggest that this is ginseng’s primary mechanism of action, resulting in improved penile hemodynamics.

The herb Ginkgo biloba also has vasodilating properties. It is used in many alternative herbal supplements to help increase blood flow to the genitals. Recent evidence supports indications that Ginkgo biloba extract is effective in the treatment of ED caused by the lack of blood flow to the genitals. It enhances blood circulation and appears to help ED by increasing blood flow to the penis. It can also relax the muscles and assist with penis blood flow.

Infertility

Reports show that about 6 percent of adult males are believed to be infertile.
Male
infertility is usually associated with a decrease in the
number, quality, or motility (power of movement) of sperm. Taken together, low
sperm count in the semen, decreased sperm motility, and abnormal shape of the
sperm are responsible for infertility in about 40 percent of men.

Excessive reactive free radicals can be very damaging to
sperm. Elements in the sperm cell membrane are highly susceptible to oxidative
damage. Several antioxidant supplements that regulate the effects of oxidative
stress, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, glutathione, selenium, and coenzyme
Q10 (CoQ10), have proven to be effective in treating this
cause of male infertility.

The effects of oxidative DNA damage and the role of dietary ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in preventing this damage have encouraged examination of these factors in relation to human sperm DNA. One study showed that dietary ascorbic acid protects human sperm from oxidative DNA damage that could affect sperm quality and increase the risk of genetic defects. Another study found that daily supplementation with 200 to 1,000 milligrams of vitamin C increased the fertility of men with a condition called agglutination, in which sperm stick together.

Vitamin E supplementation has been shown to enhance fertility in men, most probably by decreasing free-radical damage to sperm cells. In another study, men with low fertilization rates were given 200 IU (international units) of vitamin E daily. After one month of supplementation, fertilization rates increased significantly, and the amount of oxidative stress on sperm cells decreased.

Glutathione and selenium are vital to the antioxidant
defenses of sperm and have shown positive effects on sperm motility. Deficiencies
in either of these substances can lead to defective sperm motility. In a clinical
study of twenty infertile men, glutathione demonstrated a statistically
significant improvement in sperm motility. Another study reported that fertile
males had significantly higher selenium levels in their seminal fluid than
infertile men.

Zinc deficiency is associated with decreased testosterone
levels and reduced sperm count. An adequate amount of zinc ensures proper sperm
production and motility. Several studies have found supplemental zinc to be
helpful in treating cases of low sperm count or of decreased testosterone
levels.

The amino acid L-arginine is a biochemical precursor of substances that are thought to be essential to sperm production and motility. L-arginine is also essential for the production of testosterone, the predominant hormone necessary for healthy sperm production. In one study, 74 percent of men with low sperm count experienced significant improvement in sperm count and motility after taking 4 grams of L-arginine per day for three months.

Carnitine, derived from an amino acid, contributes directly
to sperm motility and may be involved in the successful maturation of sperm. This
is especially important because sperm tend to accumulate carnitine while in the
epididymis. Low levels of carnitine lead to potential alterations in sperm
motility. One study found a direct correlation between semen carnitine content and
sperm motility.

CoQ10 is concentrated in the mitochondria of sperm cells, where it is involved in energy production. It also functions as an antioxidant, preventing lipid peroxidation of sperm membranes. In one study, 10 milligrams per day of an analog of CoQ10 was given to infertile men, resulting in increases in sperm count and motility.

Bibliography

National Cancer Institute. Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/cam.

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov.

Trivieri, Larry, Jr., and John W. Anderson. eds. Alternative Medicine: The Definitive Guide. 2d ed. Berkeley, Calif.: InnoVision Health Media, 2002.

What is hay fever?

Causes and Symptoms

Allergic rhinitis, popularly known as hay fever, represents the most common allergic disorder, affecting approximately 10 percent of the population; the most common source of the allergy is wind-dispersed pollen. These tiny grains are produced in phenomenal numbers to ensure transfer of the pollen (which contains the plant’s sperm) to other flowers of the same plant species. Trees, grasses, and certain forbs (especially the ragweeds) are the most common culprits. The first time that a susceptible person is exposed, the pollen acts to sensitize the immune system. On second and subsequent exposures, the pollen triggers an allergic response.

This response is triggered by the formation of a specific class of antibody known as IgE against the proteins on the pollen grains (generally called antigens and in this case called allergens). Immunoglobulin E (IgE) attaches to tissue cells called mast cells by one end and to the pollen grains at the other end. This attachment causes the mast cells to release defensive substances, the best known of which is histamine. These substances cause increased permeability of capillaries and the production and release of mucous and watery substances from the nasal passages and eyes. Itching and sneezing accompany the release. The tendency to produce IgE against pollen allergens is an inherited trait; persons with one or both parents who have allergies to certain substances are more likely to exhibit the same allergies than persons whose parents do not exhibit such responses.

Treatment and Therapy

It is generally agreed that avoidance of the allergen is the most effective therapy for hay fever. Staying inside a building with air conditioning or well-filtered air during the worst allergy season helps. However, avoiding an allergen completely, such as ragweed pollen during ragweed’s flowering season, is essentially impossible.

The most common treatments employed are desensitization and drugs. Desensitization involves a series of injections of slowly increasing concentrations of the allergen, in the hope of turning the patient’s immune system from the production of IgE to the production of immunoglobulin G (IgG), which does not trigger the mast cells. Drugs such as antihistamines, which block the action or the release of histamine and the other substances released by mast cells, are commonly recommended, either in prescription strength or over the counter. Steroid and decongestant sprays have also been successful in relieving the symptoms of hay fever in some individuals.

Perspective and Prospects

For many persons, long-term avoidance of allergens such as pollen may be difficult. Current drugs such as antihistamines are directed primarily at relieving symptoms without removing the cause: the binding of IgE to the allergen. Future drugs may address the variety of steps involved in the allergic response while causing fewer side effects such as sleepiness. Other treatments may involve augmentation of IgG production in response to immunization with the allergen, since IgG competes with IgE in binding to the allergen.

Bibliography

Abbas, Abul K., Andrew H. Lichtman, and Shiv Pillai. Basic Immunology: Functions and Disorders of the Immune System. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2012.

Carson-DeWitt, Rosalyn. "Allergic Rhinitis." Health Library, October 31, 2012.

Delves, Peter J., et al. Roitt’s Essential Immunology. 12th ed. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2011.

"Hay Fever." Mayo Clinic, July 17, 2012.

Janeway, Charles A., Jr., et al. Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease. 6th ed. New York: Garland Science, 2005.

Owen, Judy, Jenni Punt, and Sharon Stranford. Kuby Immunology. 7th ed. New York: W. H. Freeman, 2013.

Rabson, Arthur, et al. Really Essential Medical Immunology. 2d ed. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Science, 2005.

In To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, how are the Ewells described?

The Ewells are those often referred to as "white trash." When Jem decides in Chapter 23 that there are four kinds of folks, the Ewells are the last kind. "Sorry folks" is another term used by Southerners for such people.

Bob Ewell is a reprobate; he drinks continuously and is so indolent that he has even been fired by the WPA (Works Progress Administration - an agency of the New Deal that put people to work on public projects during the Great Depression). A sexually and physically abusive father to Mayella, he is also irresponsible as he drinks away his welfare check instead of providing for his family. Moreover, he is often absent for long stretches. Therefore, Mayella must help raise her siblings since her poor mother has died and there is no one else to care for them.
The family lives in a shack, whose windows have no glass and the roof has been fashioned with flattened tin cans gleaned from the city dump where the children also scour for food. It is only Mayella who demonstrates that she would like a better life as she tends diligently and lovingly to some red geraniums that brighten the dismal dirt yard.

However, in her efforts to gain some attention, Mayella flirts with Tom Robinson. When he rejects her advances, which would have given her some power over someone, and Mayella's father learns of this, he presses charges against Tom. This action of Bob's is done mainly because Tom is black and Ewell hopes to deflect any suspicion that Mayella may have initiated an action so socially forbidden. In addition, he aspires to attain some positive attention from the townspeople as he helps to "put a Negro in his place."

When Scout asks her father how Burris Ewell is allowed to only come on the first day of school, Atticus tells her that 

... the Ewells were members of an exclusive society made up of [only] Ewells. In certain circumstances the common folk judiciously allowed  them certain privileges by the simple method of becoming blind to some of the... activities.....Mr. Bob Ewell, Burris’s father, was permitted to hunt and trap out of season.

Under certain circumstances the authorities have found that the Ewells are so recalcitrant that conflicting with them on certain issues takes far too much time and money. This is the case with the truant officer, who would be occupied all year in chasing down the Ewell children who do not desire an education. In Chapter 3, for instance, the ignorant and impudent Burris tells Miss Caroline "I done done my time for this year" as he prepares to leave.

Clearly, the Ewells are an "exclusive class" as Atticus so diplomatically words their indolent, irresponsible, anti-social, and slovenly ways.

`(3, sqrt(3)), (6, -2sqrt(3))` Find the inclination 'theta' (in radians and degrees) of the line with slope m.

Given coordinates are `(3,sqrt(3)),(6,-2sqrt(3))`

Slope (m)=`(y_2-y_1)/(x_2-x_1)`

Plug in the given coordinates in the above formula,

`m=(-2sqrt(3)-sqrt(3))/(6-3)`

`m=(-3sqrt(3))/(3)`

`m=-sqrt(3)`

So the angle of inclination(`theta` )=`arctan(-sqrt(3))`

`theta=-60^@` 

or`theta=360-60=300^@`

Use the conversion `360^@` = `2pi` radians

`:.300^@=((2pi)/360)*300`

` ` `=(5pi)/3`

Answer: `300^@`

and  `(5pi)/3` radians

Identify examples of irony in each act in Julius Caesar and tell the function of each.

There are three types of irony in literature: dramatic irony, situational irony, and verbal irony.  Dramatic irony occurs when the audience is aware of something that the character is not.  Situational irony occurs when an outcome is different from what is expected.  Verbal irony occurs when a character or speaker says something that contradicts his or her intended meaning.  In Julius Caesar, Shakespeare uses all three types of irony to present underlying meanings and narrative tensions to further develop the narrative arc. 

In Act 1 Scene II, dramatic irony occurs when the Soothsayer bids to Caesar to “Beware the ides of March” (I. ii. 20).  This is an example of dramatic irony for two reasons.  First, the audience has already been made aware of the conflict surrounding Caesar’s legitimacy as a ruler through the dialogue between Flavius and Murellus in Act I, Scene I.  Also, in a historical context, the audience knows that Caesar is killed on the 15th of March.  The dramatic irony used here functions as a warning to Caesar of his impending death, but his refusal to heed the warning showcases his pride.  This helps answer why despite all the warnings, Caesar still walked into his death.

Also in Act I Scene II, verbal irony occurs when Cassius calls Caesar a god in an effort to convince Brutus that Caesar is not fit to rule Rome.  Cassius states, “Tis true, this god did shake! / His coward lips did from their color fly, / And that same eye whose bend doth awe the world / Did lose his luster” (I. ii. 123-26).  Here, Cassius refers to Caesar as a god, yet does not truly regard Caesar as superior, as evidenced by the diction of “coward” and “lose his luster.” Cassius says one thing, but intends another.  This verbal irony foreshadows the death of Caesar, as Cassius and Brutus do not perceive him as immortal, and by using verbal irony, Cassius plants the seed in Brutus’ mind that Caesar can be overtaken.    

In Act II Scene II, dramatic irony occurs when Calpurnia tells Caesar about her dream.  Calpurnia recounts the dream, stating, “Fierce fiery warriors fought upon the clouds / In ranks and squadrons and right form of war, / Which drizzled blood upon the Capitol” (II. ii. 19-21).  This is an example of dramatic irony because the audience has already been made aware of the plot to kill Caesar on the Ides of March.  The image of the Capitol being drizzled with blood confirms the validity of Calpurnia’s prophetic dream, and again his refusal to heed her warning, emphasizes his arrogance and pride in believing he is safe.  This functions not only as a foreshadowing device that adds suspense, but also helps characterize Caesar as a leader and give reason to his downfall.

In Act III Scene I, situational irony occurs when Caesar proclaims his constancy.  He states, “But I am constant as the northern star, / Of whose true-fixed and resting quality / There is no fellow in the firmament” (III. i. 65-67).  Here, Caesar claims that he is immovable and untouchable, yet Caesar becomes the victim of this situational irony.  In the end, Caesar is killed by the senators.  However, in a double layer of situational irony, Caesar’s name becomes the common title for all subsequent rulers of Rome, thereby in fact making “Caesar” as immortal as the North Star.

Also in Act III Scene II, verbal irony occurs during Antony’s funeral speech.  In the infamous lines, Antony states, “But Brutus says he was ambitious, / And Brutus is an honorable man” (III. Ii. 85-86).  This is an excellent example of verbal irony because it is very clear that Antony does not regard Brutus as an honorable man.  Yet, he makes this claim to appear as if he is endorsing Brutus, when in fact his speech undermines Brutus as a ruler.  This is an important moment in the play because it sets up the political factions that form after Caesar’s death.

In Act IV Scene I another example of situational irony occurs when Antony behaves differently from previous scenes.  In this scene, instead of acting like Caesar’s trusted and close friend, Antony sends Lepidus to get Caesar’s will so that he can amend the provisions to be given to the people of Rome.  Antony states, “But, Lepidus, go you to Caesar’s house. / Fetch the will hither, and we shall determine / How to cut off some charge in legacies” (IV. i. 8-10).  This is an example of situational irony because Antony is behaving differently than what is expected.  He is acting like a corrupt politician similar to how Cassius and Brutus behaved while plotting the murder of Caesar.  The function of this situational irony is to provide commentary on the abuses of public office by presenting the true nature of Antony.

Finally, in Act V Scene III, one of the most famous examples of literary situational irony occurs when Cassius is killed by the same sword used to kill Caesar.  Giving his sword to his servant, Cassius states, “Now be a free man, and with this good sword / That ran through Caesar’s bowels, search this bosom” (V. iii. 45-56). This is an example of situational irony because Cassius plotted to kill Caesar with the same sword that proved his own ruin.  This shows the irony of ambition. 

In the novel The Bronze Bow, what is the difference between how Thacia and Daniel see the world?

Thacia and Daniel have differing views in regards to how each of them sees the world, in particular, how God plans to restore His kingdom on earth and how Jews should treat the Romans. Daniel believes that God has chosen specific individuals like He did in the past to rise up and take action against oppressors. Daniel's mindset is to immediately take action, and he is opposed to tolerance and love. Daniel tries to solve his problems through physical aggression and lives his life to enact revenge on the Romans. Thacia is equally courageous as Daniel and is willing to help Israel, but understands that Jesus' message encourages change through love and acceptance. Thacia tells Daniel, "...Jesus has made me see that we don't need to wait for God to care for us. He does that now" (Speare 177). Thacia clearly understands Jesus' peaceful message, while Daniel remains jaded and unsure. Daniel is also deeply prejudiced towards the Romans, but Thacia mentions to Daniel that Jesus encourages them to love their enemies. Daniel does not accept this teaching to mean that he should love the Romans, but Thacia thinks differently. Overall, Thacia is full of wisdom, hope, love, and faith, while Daniel is vengeful and intransigent. Daniel views the world as unfair while Thacia is appreciative of every opportunity and believes in love and tolerance.

How does the author use foreshadowing to build suspense in "The Possibility of Evil"?

The epigram to the story provides the first example of foreshadowing: "Little do the townsfolk suspect, though, that the dignified old woman leads another, secret life...". Right from the start, the reader knows to keep a close eye on Miss Strangeworth. In fact, the character's name is an example of foreshadowing. A name like hers raises readers' antennae for odd behavior.

Another example of foreshadowing is when Miss Strangeworth notes a townsperson acting out of character at the grocery store.

"Ran out of sugar for my cake frosting," Mrs. Harper explained. Her hand shook slightly as she opened her pocketbook. Miss Strangeworth wondered, glancing at her quickly, if she had been taking proper care of herself.

Mrs. Harper's shaking hand indicates she is feeling ill at ease. Later in the story, it is revealed that Miss Strangeworth had sent her a letter anonymously, implying that her husband was cheating on her.

Yet another example of foreshadowing is when Miss Strangeworth notices Linda Stewart upset. 

"Many people seemed disturbed recently, Miss Strangeworth thought. Only yesterday the Stewarts' fifteen-year-old Linda had run crying down her own front walk and all the way to school."

Linda is upset, the reader finds out later, because her father received a letter that warned him about Dave Harris and his intentions for his daughter. Linda was forbidden to see Dave anymore; again, this was Miss Strangeworth's doing. She believed that "people everywhere were lustful and evil and degraded, and needed to be watched" and it was her duty as the only living Strangeworth to do the watching and the telling.

In The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-time Indian, who contributes to Junior's development the most and how?

In The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-time Indian, Junior encounters several influential people including his parents, his grandmother, and his good friends Rowdy and Penelope.  However, arguably the most influential character in Junior's development is his former math teacher Mr. P.  When Junior realizes that he has been issued an outdated textbook, he throws the book at Mr. P in anger and expects that Mr. P will likely never talk to him again.  However, Mr. P invites Junior to have a conversation about education on the reservation.  During their discussion, Mr. P reveals that he has been complicit in a scheme to assimilate the Native Americans and that he has been a part of the dilemma on the reservation in which people give up hope.  Mr. P tells Junior that the only way to save himself is to go off the reservation for a better education that will lead to opportunities in life.  Once Mr. P suggests this plan of action, Junior seriously considers the proposition and eventually does end up going to Reardan.  Changing schools is a crucial part of Junior's character development as the change challenges him to both deal with being labeled a traitor by his own people and deal with the racism in an all-white community.

Is it ever justifiable to rebel against the government?

To answer this question, we need to look at the Declaration of Independence. In the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson wrote that the people have certain rights that can’t be taken away or given up. These rights, called the unalienable rights, are the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The Declaration of Independence went on to say that the job of the government is to protect the rights of the people.

In the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson outlined a scenario where it would be acceptable for the people to rebel against the government. If the government abused its powers and didn’t protect the rights of the people, the people had no choice but to rebel and replace that government with a new government that would protect their rights. Since the colonists believed that the king had abused his power and that the British government was infringing on their rights, the colonists needed to rebel and become independent.

Thus, there is a time when people would be justified for rebelling against the government.

Why is Niccolo Machiavelli a significant historical figure?

Niccolo Machiavelli was a 15-16th century Italian political philosopher who helped lay the foundation for modern political theory. Although he published many works, his most famous was The Prince. In The Prince, Machiavelli provided rulers with a "handbook" for how to successfully govern their domains and maintain power.

The book's emphasis on power politics was quite controversial. For example, Machiavelli declared that:

Since love and fear can hardly exist together, if we must choose between them, it is far safer to be feared than loved.

Claims such as this contradicted the widespread belief that rulers should be governed by chivalry and Christian virtue (clearly, rulers did not always abide by this standard, but these were the expectations). Machiavelli said that rulers who only try to do what they "should" do will quickly find themselves deposed; thus, rulers should act "according to necessity," and sometimes necessity required doing things which might be considered bad. This idea was the forerunner to utilitarian politics, which argues, in short, that the "end justifies the means."

Please explain and list some examples of words and their primary stresses.

The primary stress in a word falls on the most heavily accented syllable.  There is a primary stress in every word in English. In monosyllabic words, that is, words that have only one syllable, the primary stress falls on the entire word.  In multisyllabic words, it is common practice to define a syllable as a vowel and its surrounding consonants.  Usually this means that any consonants that could be assigned either to the beginning of one syllable or the end of another are assigned to the beginning.  So this means that in a word like slavery, where the stress is on the first syllable, the v is assigned to the beginning of the second syllable rather than to the end of the first.  

If there is a cluster of consonants of three or more, such as in pumpkin, the greatest possible number (according to the phonetic rules of a language) is assigned to the beginning of the next syllable.  In this case, because the combination pk- is impossible in word-initial position, the p is assigned to the first syllable.

Primary stress is commonly denoted in multisyllabic words with an apostrophe (‘) before the indicated syllable.  For the word multisyllabic, for example, the stress would be noted thus:  multisyl’labic.  So we know that the stress falls on the syllable la.

For this exercise I will just put the primary stress in bold, for simplification.

I )  strength
II ) illustrate
III ) distinction 
IV ) slavery
V ) historical
VI ) pumpkin
VII ) shield
VIII ) doubt
IX ) Oxford (x = two phonetic sounds, /ks/, so the three-consonant rule                  outlined above stands)
X ) theatre

What are two ways that technology is changing chemistry?

Technology is easing the lives of chemistry researchers and is not only speeding up the work, but is also opening new horizons for them. I will take two examples of technology: computers and microscopes. 

Computational chemistry and biochemistry are two branches of chemistry that have gained immensely from advances in computers. Use of high-end computers allows faster processing of data and also enables modeling of complex chemical systems (especially the multiscale systems). An example of computer application could be speciation of heavy metals in subsurface. 

Microscopes are of significant interest to material chemists, researchers who are trying to come up with new materials with certain desired properties. Materials like nanoparticles or carbon nanotubes can be more easily studied, understood and engineered if we can look at them and study their surfaces. An example of microscope's application could be surface characterization of a new material, in order to study its fouling potential, etc.

Thus, technology is making significant changes in how we learn and apply chemistry.

Hope this helps. 

In The Pigman, why did John and Lorraine invite so many people?

In The Pigman, by Paul Zindel, John and Lorraine are having a party at the Pigman's house, but it gets out of hand. There are about forty people there, some of whom weren't even invited, and of course because there's alcohol and smoking involved, the house is becoming a terrible mess. So the question is, why did the kids even invite so many people?

John is narrating Chapter 13, which is when this party is happening. He tells us:

"We really didn't start out inviting too many kids, but the more Lorraine and I thought of the parties we had been invited to, the more we had to call. After all, it was the first time either one of us had a chance to return the invitations we had gotten."

So basically, they invite so many friends because they'd accepted those friends' invitations to parties in the past, and it's considered good etiquette to host people who have hosted you before (just like it's polite to get someone a gift during the holidays if you know that person is planning to give one to you).

In Athol Fugard's play The Road to Mecca, how is conflict built up to create dramatic tension between Elsa and Helen? How are Elsa and Helen both...

As Athol Fugard's play The Road to Mecca progresses, the more we learn about the conflicts between Elsa and Helen. Plus, the more these conflicts develop, the more dramatic tension is developed.

One source of conflict between the two is that Elsa objects to the religious and racist influences Helen surrounds herself with, having lived all her life in New Bethesda, a village established by the Dutch Reformed Church in 1875. One religious influence Elsa objects to is the village's stance on drinking. A member of the village, Old Getruida, has decided to rise up against the village by opening up her own liquor store. She plans to use the profits to help fund the native Africans' project to build their own school. However, the pastor, Marius, has risen up against the idea and has even given a sermon warning against the "evils of alcohol and how it's ruining the health and lives of our Coloured folks" (p. 12). When Elsa protests against Helen's support of her pastor's view, Helen points out that the situation of their African friend and servant, Katrina, who suffers at the hands of an alcoholic husband, would only worsen. When their conversation continues into the domain of apartheid, Elsa shows just how much she objects to the village's religious and racist views by asking Helen the following:

Why do you always stand up and defend this bunch of bigots? Look at the way they've treated you? (p. 14)

The second and greatest source of conflict between the two is that Helen is beginning to submit to the village's notion that she should be put in an assisted living facility, whereas Elsa staunchly objects to the idea. Elsa sees Helen as being successful at living her life independently and that she still has a great deal of living to do because she still has a great deal of art to create. This conflict reaches its pinnacle when, out of frustration, while in Marius's presence, Elsa breaks down and yells to Helen to command her to sign the application form for the assisted living facility. At first, when she hears Marius explain about the accidental fire, she relents and begins to feel that Helen really should be in the assisted living facility; however, as Marius continues the argument, Elsa returns to her former belief that Helen needs to keep living a life that will allow her to freely express herself. The intensity of the conflict creates quite a lot of dramatic tension, not just between Elsa and Helen but between Elsa and Marius as well.

Why was talking only when necessary at sea considered a virtue in The Old Man and the Sea?

Fishing is a profession taken very seriously in The Old Man and the Sea. The old man, Santiago, and his friend Manolin, a young boy, live in a fishing village with many other fishermen, some more successful and some less. Santiago has gone 84 days without a single catch, and Manolin's parents refuse to let Manolin accompany him after the first 40 days without any catches, since his boat is now considered unlucky. Manolin hates to leave Santiago, but must listen to his parents. Now Santiago fishes alone, and feels lonely as a result. Even thought he and Manolin did not speak often when they fished together (as shown in the quote below), his company comforted and strengthened Santiago, as is evidenced by how often Santiago mentions Manolin and how he wishes he was there to help him.

When he and the boy fished together they usually spoke only when it was necessary. They talked at night or when they were storm-bound by bad weather. It was considered a virtue not to talk unnecessarily at sea and the old man had always considered it so and respected it. But now he said his thoughts aloud many times since there was no one that they could annoy.

It was probably considered a virtue not to speak more than you had to at sea so as to not alert the fish to your presence. Throughout the book, we see Santiago's sensitivity and awareness to the perspective and behavior of the fish, and keeping quiet could very well be an extension of that awareness. It is also something that developed as a habit or custom among the fishermen, because general silence while fishing was something that all of the fishermen followed.

Sometimes someone would speak in a boat. But most of the boats were silent except for the dip of the oars.

In contrast, when at the docks, the fishermen spoke to each other freely and to Santiago freely, whether politely or to denigrate his fishing skills.

They sat on the Terrace and many of the fishermen made fun of the old man and he was not angry. Others, of the older fishermen, looked at him and were sad. But they did not show it and they spoke politely about the current and the depths they had drifted their lines at and the steady good weather and of what they had seen.

What is a summary of the poem "The Last Lesson of the Afternoon" by D.H. Lawrence?

The poem "The Last Lesson of the Afternoon" by D.H. Lawrence is about a teacher who is second-guessing his life’s work as an instructor to various students. In this six stanza poem, the poet begins by saying that the teacher is waiting for the bell to ring so that his last class and teaching lesson of the afternoon can end. It is apparent that the teacher is tired as the first line of the poem states:

“When will the bell ring, and end this weariness?”

Right away the reader knows that all is not well in this formal classroom. This teacher feels that his students are akin to a “pack of unruly hounds”. He does not want to expend any more time and energy dispensing knowledge to this group who has no interest in really pursuing knowledge. The teacher is frustrated in this poem and feels like he could do better directing his talents elsewhere - to those who have a deep interest in knowledge acquisition.

There are indications in the poem that this teacher has been involved in teaching for many years – probably decades. He says:

“So, shall I take

My last dear fuel of life to heap on my soul”

He is weary and says, in so many words, that he can no longer stand to look at school desks full of books. In addition, he can no longer stand the shoddy written foolscap or papers that these students submit to him. Furthermore, he wonders what is the point of this all – to him and the students. So, it’s evident that years of toil in the classroom have taken their toll on this teacher.

He believes that the students he teaches are indifferent (uninterested). He no longer wants to labor in trying to get them to be interested in what he teaches. He says:

“I will not waste my soul and my strength for this.”

At this point in his life, with all his accumulated teaching experience, this teacher feels it is all for naught. He believes that all his efforts, and those of his students, ends up going down the scrap heap (metaphorically speaking). He states that his teaching and his students’ learning:

"...all goes down the same abyss”

In the end, this teacher says that he no longer cares for what he does regarding the teaching profession, and he also no longer cares what the students take in. He desires that he and they expend their strength elsewhere – in new directions. Therefore, he is waiting for the afternoon school bell to mercifully put an end to this boring and unproductive “Last Lesson of the Afternoon.”

Explain how the tragedy in Romeo and Juliet is due to a combination of characters' tragic flaws and fate.

The events of Romeo and Juliet indeed result from bad luck and characters’ tragic flaws. Both Romeo and Juliet are young, impetuous, and passionate. Friar Laurence warns them that “violent delights have violent ends.” Romeo kills both Tybalt and Paris, almost instinctively, and the two lovers contemplate suicide many times before finally committing it. Lord Capulet and Lord Montague are also to blame for the conflict between the two houses that forbids Romeo and Juliet from marrying.

Mercutio’s and Tybalt’s flaws likewise contribute to the tragedy. Though Romeo tries to make peace with Tybalt, Tybalt easily goads the mercurial Mercutio (as the name suggests) into fighting. Benvolio attempts to calm him, but Mercutio asserts, “I will not budge for no man's pleasure, I.” Tybalt is also a fiery and violent individual who perpetuates the feud: “What, drawn, and talk of peace! I hate the word, / As I hate hell, all Montagues, and thee.”

Fate intervenes the moment Romeo attempts to stop the fight between Mercutio and Tybalt, when Tybalt fatally wounds Mercutio. In turn, Romeo kills Tybalt. That Romeo survived and Mercutio and Tybalt died is almost a fluke, and Romeo cries, “I am fortune's fool!” Romeo is then banished.

A major mishap then occurs when Friar Laurence sends a message to tell Romeo that Juliet has faked her death. Due to a quarantine, the letter does not arrive on time. Romeo takes poison because he believes that Juliet is dead, and Juliet stabs herself because Romeo is dead. In addition, Paris happens to be at Juliet’s grave when Romeo arrives, and the two of them fight out of loyalty to Juliet until Paris is slain.

Therefore it is both unfortunate circumstances and human failings that contribute to the tragic destiny of Romeo, Juliet, and the people of Verona.