There are three types of irony in literature: dramatic irony, situational irony, and verbal irony. Dramatic irony occurs when the audience is aware of something that the character is not. Situational irony occurs when an outcome is different from what is expected. Verbal irony occurs when a character or speaker says something that contradicts his or her intended meaning. In Julius Caesar, Shakespeare uses all three types of irony to present underlying meanings and narrative tensions to further develop the narrative arc.
In Act 1 Scene II, dramatic irony occurs when the Soothsayer bids to Caesar to “Beware the ides of March” (I. ii. 20). This is an example of dramatic irony for two reasons. First, the audience has already been made aware of the conflict surrounding Caesar’s legitimacy as a ruler through the dialogue between Flavius and Murellus in Act I, Scene I. Also, in a historical context, the audience knows that Caesar is killed on the 15th of March. The dramatic irony used here functions as a warning to Caesar of his impending death, but his refusal to heed the warning showcases his pride. This helps answer why despite all the warnings, Caesar still walked into his death.
Also in Act I Scene II, verbal irony occurs when Cassius calls Caesar a god in an effort to convince Brutus that Caesar is not fit to rule Rome. Cassius states, “Tis true, this god did shake! / His coward lips did from their color fly, / And that same eye whose bend doth awe the world / Did lose his luster” (I. ii. 123-26). Here, Cassius refers to Caesar as a god, yet does not truly regard Caesar as superior, as evidenced by the diction of “coward” and “lose his luster.” Cassius says one thing, but intends another. This verbal irony foreshadows the death of Caesar, as Cassius and Brutus do not perceive him as immortal, and by using verbal irony, Cassius plants the seed in Brutus’ mind that Caesar can be overtaken.
In Act II Scene II, dramatic irony occurs when Calpurnia tells Caesar about her dream. Calpurnia recounts the dream, stating, “Fierce fiery warriors fought upon the clouds / In ranks and squadrons and right form of war, / Which drizzled blood upon the Capitol” (II. ii. 19-21). This is an example of dramatic irony because the audience has already been made aware of the plot to kill Caesar on the Ides of March. The image of the Capitol being drizzled with blood confirms the validity of Calpurnia’s prophetic dream, and again his refusal to heed her warning, emphasizes his arrogance and pride in believing he is safe. This functions not only as a foreshadowing device that adds suspense, but also helps characterize Caesar as a leader and give reason to his downfall.
In Act III Scene I, situational irony occurs when Caesar proclaims his constancy. He states, “But I am constant as the northern star, / Of whose true-fixed and resting quality / There is no fellow in the firmament” (III. i. 65-67). Here, Caesar claims that he is immovable and untouchable, yet Caesar becomes the victim of this situational irony. In the end, Caesar is killed by the senators. However, in a double layer of situational irony, Caesar’s name becomes the common title for all subsequent rulers of Rome, thereby in fact making “Caesar” as immortal as the North Star.
Also in Act III Scene II, verbal irony occurs during Antony’s funeral speech. In the infamous lines, Antony states, “But Brutus says he was ambitious, / And Brutus is an honorable man” (III. Ii. 85-86). This is an excellent example of verbal irony because it is very clear that Antony does not regard Brutus as an honorable man. Yet, he makes this claim to appear as if he is endorsing Brutus, when in fact his speech undermines Brutus as a ruler. This is an important moment in the play because it sets up the political factions that form after Caesar’s death.
In Act IV Scene I another example of situational irony occurs when Antony behaves differently from previous scenes. In this scene, instead of acting like Caesar’s trusted and close friend, Antony sends Lepidus to get Caesar’s will so that he can amend the provisions to be given to the people of Rome. Antony states, “But, Lepidus, go you to Caesar’s house. / Fetch the will hither, and we shall determine / How to cut off some charge in legacies” (IV. i. 8-10). This is an example of situational irony because Antony is behaving differently than what is expected. He is acting like a corrupt politician similar to how Cassius and Brutus behaved while plotting the murder of Caesar. The function of this situational irony is to provide commentary on the abuses of public office by presenting the true nature of Antony.
Finally, in Act V Scene III, one of the most famous examples of literary situational irony occurs when Cassius is killed by the same sword used to kill Caesar. Giving his sword to his servant, Cassius states, “Now be a free man, and with this good sword / That ran through Caesar’s bowels, search this bosom” (V. iii. 45-56). This is an example of situational irony because Cassius plotted to kill Caesar with the same sword that proved his own ruin. This shows the irony of ambition.
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