Who is Merrick Garland and why is he important?

Merrick Garland is the current nominee to fill the vacant seat on the United States Supreme Court, the highest court in the country. The vacancy is a result of Judge Antonin Scalia's unexpected death in February of 2016. Merck Garland currently serves as the chief judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, the second highest court in the country.

His nomination is important for a variety of reasons.

First, a Supreme Court vacancy does not come available very often, since judicial appointments are for life. A serving justice must either retire or die in order for one to come available, and with some current judges serving into their 70's, we see how seldom retirement happens.

Second, the vacancy currently leaves eight Supreme Court justices whose political and personal leanings may cause several ties as they go to decide cases. Four of them usually swing conservative when voting, and the other four usually swing liberal. This means the next justice to be elected will play a crucial role in breaking ties.  SO, Democrats would like to see a Liberal justice and Republicans would like to see a conservative justice.

Third, President Obama is considered a lame-duck President, meaning that his term is nearly over and much of the legislation he would like to pass in his final few months is likely to be blocked by Republicans. The majority of Republicans serving in the Senate vowed not to consider any of President Obama's Supreme Court nominees, believing that the newest justice should be chosen by the new President who will take office in January 2017.

Fourth, the Republicans made this vow prior to President Obama nominating Garland.  Things became a bit complicated when he chose Garland because he is "unequivocally qualified," and well-liked by both Democrats and Republicans. Obama was expected to nominate someone clearly liberal. Many Democrats have made the argument that if the Republicans refuse to give Garland a confirmation hearing (like a very official job interview where the Senate decides if they approve of him), they are doing so only as a political move and not based on the quality of the nominee, who many have said would be confirmed any other circumstances. In fact, several Republicans have come out and said that refusing to give Garland a hearing is based on principle, not the person. In other words, they feel that the President has the right to nominate someone, but the Senate has the right not to provide a hearing for that person. The Senate Republicans feel the next President should nominate the newest justice.

So, Merrick Garland is important because he happens to be nominated right in the middle of a very politicized and tense Presidential campaign, and represents a possible swing vote for many upcoming Supreme Court decisions should he be confirmed.

In Chapter 20, what is Jem's projected verdict on the case so far?

In Chapter 20, Scout and Dill return from their visit with Dolphus Raymond outside of the courthouse. When Scout returns, she realizes that she's missed the first part of Atticus' defense and asks Jem how long they've been at it. Jem tells his sister that Atticus has just gone over the evidence. Jem says to Scout that he doesn't see how they cannot win the case. In Jem's mind, the evidence clearly suggests that Tom Robinson is innocent. He tells Scout that Atticus has made it "plain and easy" so that everyone could understand the lack of evidence and conflicting testimonies (Lee 270). Atticus then proceeds to give his closing remarks, in which he urges the jury to look past their prejudices and judge the case strictly on the testimonies and evidence provided. Unfortunately, Maycomb's racist jury convicts Tom Robinson of raping and beating Mayella Ewell. After witnessing racial injustice for the first time, Jem loses his childhood innocence and becomes jaded about the community members of Maycomb.

How to find the number of neutrons in manganese?

One way to find the neutrons in the atom of a given element is by using its atomic number and atomic mass. The atomic number of an element is the number of protons it has, while the atomic mass is a measure of both the number of protons and number of neutrons.

In other words,

atomic number = number of protons

atomic mass = number of protons + number of neutrons

Thus, the number of neutrons can be determined by subtracting the atomic number from the atomic mass. That is,

Number of neutrons = atomic mass - atomic number

The atomic number of manganese is 25 and its atomic mass is 54.94 (~ 55). Thus, the number of neutrons in a manganese atom are 30 (= 55-25).

Please note that a number of elements have isotopes, atoms with different atomic mass (but same atomic number). In that case, the atomic mass and atomic number can be similarly used to determine the number of neutrons.

Hope this helps. 

How did Christopher Columbus impact North America's culture, demographics, religion, and relations with other regions of the world?

We tend to overestimate the importance of Christopher Columbus as an individual.  Columbus himself had very little impact on any of the things you mention in your question.  He was merely the first European to lead a voyage that resulted in colonization in the New World.  He never even saw the continent of North America.  Rather than saying that Columbus affected North America, we should say that the Europeans who came after Columbus affected North America in the following ways:

• Demographics.  In much of North America, the Europeans killed most Native Americans or, at the very least, moved them onto small pieces of remote land.  This paved the way for much of North America to be inhabited by Europeans and their descendants.  In Mexico, the Europeans did not kill as many natives and, instead, mingled with them, creating a country that is most mestizo.


• Culture.  Because so few Native Americans remain in the US and most of Canada, we can say that their culture was basically destroyed and replaced by a culture based on European culture.  In Mexico, a hybrid culture blending European and Indian influences arose.


• Religion.  This is a part of culture. Native American religions essentially disappeared over most of North America, even in Mexico.  In the US and Canada, Europeans settled most of the land and were barely affected (if they were at all) by Indian religions.  In Mexico, Indian religions have influenced Christianity much more, leading to celebrations such as the Day of the Dead.


• Relations with the rest of the world.  Before Columbus, the Native Americans had no relations with other regions of the world.  After the Europeans came, North America became a major part of the world as a whole, leading to the situation today in which the US is the most powerful country in the world.

What is juvenile delinquency, and how does it develop?

Introduction

The first juvenile court was founded in Cook County, Chicago, in 1899. Before that time, children over the age of seven were treated as adults in criminal court. They were tried as adults, sentenced as adults, and served their time in adult facilities. The juvenile court sought to act in the best interest of the child and had the goal of keeping children out of the adult criminal justice system. Early reformers saw the adult criminal system as being harmful to young people and actually being responsible for turning youthful offenders into hardened criminals. These reformers felt that juveniles, because of their age, could be rehabilitated and become contributing citizens.

The juvenile court systems that were established in jurisdictions throughout the United States were very different from the criminal courts that tried adult cases. Unlike criminal courts, juvenile courts do not have the burden of establishing proof beyond a reasonable doubt. The lesser standard of preponderance of evidence is used. Juvenile courts are not open to the public for inspection. This shields the juveniles from the detrimental effects of being known as an offender. The juvenile court process is not meant to be an adversarial process but, much like therapeutic jurisprudence in the adult system, is meant to work toward the outcome that is in the best interest of the juvenile. Historically, the judge has acted more as a parent toward the wayward juvenile than as a judge handing out sentences.

Initially, the granting of even limited constitutional rights was seen as anathema to the juvenile system. However, while juvenile court judges were supposed to look out for the best interests of the juveniles who came into their courtrooms, this was not always what transpired. There were serious problems with the protection and care that juvenile courts gave. Juveniles were often punished more harshly than adults would be for similar actions. Many young people were given punishments based more on their ethnicity, race, and socioeconomic status than on the offense that had been committed. By the 1960s, it was clear to many that the juvenile system did not look after the interests of all juveniles equally and the Supreme Court, through a series of landmark decisions, extended some (although not all) due process rights to juveniles.

Types of Juveniles in the System

The juvenile court system handles three types of juveniles: juvenile criminal offenders, status offenders, and children in need of services. Juvenile criminal offenders are juveniles who have committed actions that would be criminal even for an adult, such as theft, robbery, rape, or murder. In some cases, juvenile cases may be waived, or transferred, to adult court. There are four ways this can occur: judicial waiver (the judge has the power to waive the juvenile to adult court), statutory exclusion (certain offenses are automatically waived to adult court), direct file (prosecutor may request that the case be waived to adult court), and demand waiver (the juvenile’s attorney may request that the case be waived to adult court). The demand waiver is most often done so that the juvenile has access to all constitutional protections afforded to adults. About half of the states place the lower age limit for transfer to adult court at fourteen or fifteen years of age. A significant portion of the remaining states have no lower age limit for transfer to adult court, and children as young as ten and eleven have been tried as adults. However, there are problems with transferring juveniles to adult court. Juveniles who are transferred to adult court have higher rates of recidivism than those who remain in the juvenile court. Juveniles who are sent to adult correctional institutions are more likely to be victimized while incarcerated. Once a juvenile is in the adult system, rehabilitation is far less likely.

Status offenders have engaged in behavior that is not allowed because of their age, such as skipping school or running away—actions that would not be illegal for an adult. It is important for the system to deal with status offenders in a different manner than juvenile criminal offenders. If possible, formal processing of these juveniles and contact with juvenile criminal offenders should be avoided.

Children in need of services (also referred to as children in need of supervision and children in need of protection) are not delinquent but rather have been victims of neglect or abuse and come into the system to be protected. Abuse can take a variety of forms, from sexual to physical to emotional. The majority of all cases of child abuse consist of instances of neglect. Neglect can take many forms, including failure to provide food, shelter, clothing, education, or medical needs.

Treating Juvenile Offenders

The earlier intervention can begin with a juvenile, the better. Too often, juveniles are not referred for treatment until they have committed several serious offenses; by then rehabilitation is a much more difficult task. The best approach focuses on prevention at one of three stages: before any sort of negative behavior, after some minor negative behavior has occurred but before serious delinquent behavior, and after serious delinquent behavior has begun.

Programs may be geared toward youths in general and may focus on building strengths and resiliency. These aim at helping youths to be the best they can be and to never engage in delinquent behavior. Resiliency research looks at ways to make delinquency less likely by helping young people to focus on their strengths rather than their deficits. Programs can help young people develop skills in academics, sports, and the arts.

Prevention programs may focus on young people who have committed less serious offenses, often status offenses—skipping school or running away. The goal is to prevent any more serious delinquent behavior from occurring. Research has shown that the single most predictive factor in later delinquency is school failure. Interventions designed to help young people succeed in school, reduce truancy, and remain in school can be highly successful. Juveniles who run away, especially female juveniles, often do so to avoid abuse within the home. Programs should address these girls’ unique needs and not necessarily return them to the abusive environment from which they came or criminalize their behavior.

Prevention programs can address the needs of the juvenile offender who has already engaged in serious delinquent behavior. These programs must be comprehensive and consistent, providing counseling, sanctions and supervision. Because of their age and the importance of the family unit to the lives of juveniles, the family should be actively involved in interventions.

Juvenile justice agencies and practitioners have moved toward a model of balanced and restorative justice. This model balances the rehabilitation of the offender with concern for the safety and well-being of the victim and the community. Balanced and restorative justice sees crime as a break in the relationship that society has with the offender. The goal of the balanced and restorative justice approach is to rehabilitate and reintegrate the offender into the community. Offenders must take responsibility for their actions and repair the harm caused by their crime.

Myths of Juvenile Delinquency

Not only the general public but also many criminal justice students believe that juvenile crime rates are rising and spiraling out of control. In fact, there was a steady increase in juvenile crimes until the mid-1990s, at which time the rates began to fall. According to statistics from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, from 1996, when it peaked, to 2011, the juvenile arrest rate declined 48 percent.

While juvenile crime rates were rising in the early 1990s, many people feared that younger and younger juveniles were committing more and more violent and serious crimes. However, even as juvenile crime rates were on the rise, most juvenile offenses were property crimes and not violent offenses. One outcome of this myth was that it became more common to waive juveniles to adult court.

A common misconception is that waiver to adult court is used to process only the most serious and violent juvenile offenders. Statistically, however, more than half of juvenile offenders who are subject to waiver have committed property crimes and not violent offenses. Far from serving as a deterrent to these or other juveniles, being sent to an adult facility increases the likelihood of recidivism.

Bibliography

Ellis, Rodney A., and Karen M. Sowers. Juvenile Justice Practice: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach to Intervention. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2001. Print.

Farrington, David P., and Rolf Loeber. From Juvenile Delinquency to Adult Crime: Criminal Careers, Justice Policy, and Prevention. New York: Oxford UP, 2012. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. 21 May 2014.

Fuller, John Randolph. Juvenile Delinquency: Mainstream and Crosscurrents. Upper Saddle River: Prentice, 2009. Print.

Greenwald, Ricky. Trauma and Juvenile Delinquency: Theory, Research, and Interventions. Hoboken: Taylor, 2014. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. 21 May 2014.

Howell, J. C. Preventing and Reducing Juvenile Delinquency: A Comprehensive Framework. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2003. Print.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. http://ojjdp.ncjrs.org.

Ryan, Joseph P., Abigail B. Williams, and Mark E. Courtney. "Adolescent Neglect, Juvenile Delinquency, and the Risk of Recidivism." Journal of Youth and Adolescence 42.3 (2013): 454–65. MEDLINE Complete. Web. 21 May 2014.

Sharp, P. M., and B. W. Hancock. Juvenile Delinquency: Historical, Theoretical, and Societal Reactions to Youth. 2d ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice, 1998. Print.

Sickmund, M., Sladky, A., and Kang, W. "Easy Access to Juvenile Court Statistics: 1985–2010." National Center for Juvenile Justice. National Juvenile Court Data Archive, 2013. Web. 21 May 2014.

What was the main reason Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation?

Lincoln's motives in issuing the Emancipation Proclamation were complex. As is well known, the wording of the document meant that it did not really free enslaved people. It only applied to slaves held in states "in Rebellion against the United States," areas where he had no political power. In the border states, and even in some southern areas occupied by federal troops, the Proclamation did not free slaves. While there was a moral dimension to the Emancipation, it was fundamentally a wartime measure, a political document. The best way, perhaps, to describe Lincoln's main motive in issuing the Proclamation is to say that he intended it to redefine the purpose of the war. Lincoln had, since the beginning of the war, maintained that it was a war to preserve the Union. The Emancipation Proclamation ensured that preservation of the Union was incompatible with preserving the institution of slavery. This was especially important when considering the global diplomatic context of the war. If the war was fundamentally about slavery, Great Britain (which had abolished slavery) would not intervene to recognize the Confederacy as Southern leaders fervently hoped they would. Lincoln seems to have genuinely believed by this point that the war should mark the end of slavery in the Confederacy, and the political and strategic benefits to this position strengthened this belief. The Emancipation Proclamation ensured that this would happen.

What is rolfing?

Overview

Rolfing is a method of deeply massaging all the connective tissue, known as fascia, between muscles, bones, ligaments, and tendons in the body in an effort to realign and restructure the overall skeletal composition. Rolfing therapy was invented in the 1930s by Ida Rolf, a biochemist, in an attempt to treat her own scoliosis and that of her two sons after being dissatisfied with the results of yoga, osteopathy, and homeopathy.

Mechanism of Action

Using hands, fingers, knuckles, elbows, and knees to apply intense pressure to inner collagen fiber, a rolfing therapist attempts to stretch and reshape the connective tissue, or fascia, between bones, tendons, muscles, and ligaments. On the theory that the skeletal structure follows the fascial makeup, rolfing therapy primarily seeks to establish increased fascial elasticity. Once tightened, fascia is unbound and lengthened through manipulation; the muscles, tendons, ligaments, and bones, which the fascia is attached to, may also then relax and realign after improper structure caused by gravity, inertia, sedentariness, repetitive movement, disease, or injury.

The first three sessions of rolfing therapy focus on massaging superficial tissue and improving breathing; the next four sessions involve deep manipulation of interior tissue structure; and the final three sessions integrate all parts of the body’s skeleton through fascial redistribution and connection. After ten sessions of sixty to ninety minutes of rolfing using deep tissue reintegration, the practitioner can then rediscover proper skeletal balance, form, and posture and then release accumulated stress and energy.

Uses and Applications

Rolfing is used primarily to reduce stress, alleviate pain, increase mobility, improve posture, and facilitate coordination. Rolfing is also frequently used in treating sports injuries and repetitive strain injuries, such as rotator cuff injuries.

Scientific Evidence

No double-blind, placebo-controlled studies of rolfing have been conducted, but there have been other scientific studies on the method. In 1963, the first major studies of rolfing being performed on children at the Foundation of Brain Injured Children concluded that after ten sessions, the impaired children improved in motor skills, muscle tone, posture, and coordination. In the 1970s, published scientific studies documented muscle tone, strength, and elasticity both before and after rolfing therapy, with empirical medical testing used to measure increased muscle performance. In 1981, a study was published that documented the improved lower body movement and mobility of persons with cerebral palsy who had been treated with rolfing therapy.

In 1988, a test revealed improved pelvic inclination in a group of women after rolfing therapy sessions, and in 1997, a study documented the decrease of low back pain in persons who had received rolfing therapy. In the late 1990s, various studies looked at rolfing to treat repetitive strain injuries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome; all showed significant improvement after rolfing therapy. Also in the late 1990s, a study revealed that a group of elderly persons maintained improved balance after receiving rolfing therapy. Whether or not any of the above studies would have achieved the same positive results using any other therapy or technique is unknown, as no comparisons of dissimilar treatments were employed. Moreover, because no placebo or double-blind groups were implemented in any of the studies, there is no reliable scientific evidence to support these studies’ claims, and the true efficacy of rolfing therapy remains unproven.

Choosing a Practitioner

Ideally, one should choose a practitioner who is certified by the Rolf Institute of Structural Integration, headquartered in Boulder, Colorado. To achieve even basic rolfing certification, students must take advanced training of one to two years beyond traditional massage techniques. Many therapists claim to be well versed in the art of rolfing, yet these same therapists are often only superficially familiar with its specific techniques. Because rolfing involves deep tissue manipulation, treatment from a therapist who is not certified or licensed by the institute poses a risk of injury.

Safety Issues

Persons with rheumatoid arthritis and other serious inflammatory medical conditions should avoid rolfing because it may exacerbate or worsen these conditions. Likewise, all persons who are frail or fragile should abstain from rolfing, inasmuch as the intense nature of the treatments may result in subsequent bone fractures. Additionally, pregnant women, especially after the first trimester, should seek out only those certified in the use of milder, modified rolfing techniques especially designed for use during pregnancy, or they should avoid rolfing therapy altogether.

Bibliography

Anson, Briah. Animal Healing: The Power of Rolfing. Minneapolis: Mill City Press, 2011.

Brecklinghaus, Hans. Rolfing Structural Integration: What It Achieves, How It Works, and Whom It Helps. La Vergne, Tenn.: Lightning Source, 2002.

Rolf, Ida. Rolfing: Reestablishing the Natural Alignment and Structural Integration of the Human Body for Vitality and Well-Being. Rochester, Vt.: Healing Arts Press, 1989.

_______, and Rosemary Feitis. Rolfing and Physical Reality. 2d ed. Rochester, Vt.: Healing Arts Press, 1990.

Sise, Betsy. The Rolfing Experience: Integration in the Gravity Field. Prescott, Ariz.: Hohm Press, 2005.

What obstacles does Poseidon create for Odysseus?

Poseidon was god of the seas and Polyphemus, the Cyclops, was his son. Odysseus blinds Polyphemus because the Cyclops was eating his men. Odysseus might have gotten away with this, but unfortunately, he foolishly brags about it and even says his own name. When Cyclops learns who Odysseus is, he asks his father to curse him. His father gladly agrees, because he is angry that his son was blinded. Poseidon is forbidden from killing Odysseus, because "Fate" states he must stay alive, but he uses his powers as a sea god to make life as difficult as possible for Odysseus, who is trying to journey home by the seas. He constantly stirs up storms that delay Odysseus and wash him up on shores or makes sure he is casting about on the sea. When Poseidon drives Odysseus's raft ashore at Phaeacia and the Phaeacians take him home, Poseidon turns his ship to stone.

What is the significance of the songs and music before the entrance of Caesar's ghost in Julius Caesar?

Brutus asks for music to appease his conscience because he can’t sleep, worried about Caesar and Philippi.

Brutus argues with Cassius about whether or not to go to Philippi.  Cassius, the more experienced military mind, does not want to go.  He worries that it is not a smart strategic move.  Brutus overrules him.  It turns out to that Cassius is right, and Brutus worries that he is right.  He asks Lucius to come in and play for him, unable to sleep.  His conscience is troubled because of the death of Caesar.  Brutus was convinced that killing Caesar was right.  Now, he is not so sure.  The war goes poorly.

When he asks Lucius to play for him, listen to the words he uses.

This is a sleepy tune. O murderous slumber,
Lay'st thou thy leaden mace upon my boy,
That plays thee music? Gentle knave, good night;
I will not do thee so much wrong to wake thee:
If thou dost nod, thou break'st thy instrument … (Act 4, Scene 3)

“Murderous slumber”?  It sounds like something is weighing heavily on his mind.  Brutus’s fears about Philippi and the murder of Caesar, along with the sleepy tune, form into his vision of Caesar’s ghost.  He either conjures the ghost up from his doubts and uncertainties, or he dreams him from these misgivings of not listening to Cassius about Philippi.  Caesar’s ghost appears on the tail of the music, and tells him he will see him there.

GHOST

To tell thee thou shalt see me at Philippi.

BRUTUS

Well; then I shall see thee again?

GHOST

Ay, at Philippi.

BRUTUS

Why, I will see thee at Philippi, then.(Act 4, Scene 3)

The ghost refers to himself as Brutus’s “evil spirit.”  This seems to support the idea that he is a product of Brutus’s self-doubts.  Brutus fell asleep with the music, but it was not an easy sleep.  To him, the music was a brooding, ghostly music.  Whatever song it was, it conjured up images of ghosts and visions of murder rather than comforting sleep.

Philippi was indeed uncomfortable for Brutus.  Caesar’s ghost appears several times, never giving comfort and always adding to Brutus’s self-doubts.  Since in this scene he appears after the music and song, it adds to the theory that Caesar’s ghost was a dream rather than an actual vision.  This supports the idea that Brutus’s conscience is suffering from his decisions about Caesar and the war.

What is clostridium difficile infection?

Causes and Symptoms

The bacteria
Clostridium difficile that cause C. difficile
infection are transmitted through the fecal-oral route. These bacteria are shed from feces of a colonized or infected person. When shed, they form spores as a protective mechanism when they enter the environment. They are able to survive in this form for many months on environmental surfaces. C. difficile infection is spread through contact with an infected or colonized patient, the environment, or the contaminated hands of a health care worker. The incubation period of C. difficile is unknown; however, one study suggests that it might be less than seven days.

The major risk factors for C. difficile infection include advanced age, hospitalization, and antibiotic use. Nearly every antibiotic has been implicated in C. difficile infection but clindamycin, cephalosporins, and floroquinolones are associated with a higher risk. When a patient receiving antibiotics ingests C. difficile spores, they germinate in the small intestine, where the normal flora has been altered. The spores multiply, flourish, and produce toxins. The toxins, toxin A and B, cause inflammation and mucosal damage leading to colitis. In severe infection, C. difficile can cause toxic megacolon, septic shock, and death.

When a patient becomes infected with C. difficile, fever, abdominal pain or tenderness, anorexia, nausea, and watery diarrhea commonly occur. In severe infection, the patient may develop pseudomembranous colitis, which may progress to toxic megacolon, a toxic dilation of the colon. If the patient develops toxic megacolon, then sepsis and death may quickly follow.

Treatment and Therapy

Some cases may resolve in two to three days after discontinuing current antibiotic use. However in most cases a ten-day course of metronidazole or vancomycin orally is effective. Surgical intervention may be necessary in severe C. difficile infection if pseudomembranous colitis or perforation develop.

Perspective and Prospects

Before the mid 1970s, pseudomembranous colitis, an inflammatory process in the colon caused by bacterial toxins, was associated with the use of certain antibiotics; mainly lincomycin and clindamycin. It was not until 1978 that C. difficile was identified as the causative agent of antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis. Since that time, C. difficile has become the leading cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Between 2000 and 2007, the rate of C. difficile-related deaths rose 400 percent, and currently about 14,000 people in the United States die each year from such infections. Moreover, a hypervirulent strain called BI/NAP1/027 has emerged. This strain produces a type of toxin not previously seen in other strains; it is also highly resistant to the fluoroquinolone antibiotics. Many health care facilities have adopted infection prevention measures since 2010, but it is not yet clear how effective these measures have been in reducing infection rates. The American College of Gastroenterology reported in 2012 that while studies have shown that fecal microbiota transplants were effective in 91 percent of C. diffpatients who had them, controlled trials of the treatment have not yet been performed.

Bibliography:

Carrico, Ruth, et al. Guide to the Elimination of Clostridium difficile in Healthcare Settings. Washington, D.C.: APIC, 2008.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Healthcare-associated Infections (HAIs): Clostridium difficile Infection." CDC, Mar. 1, 2013.

Priedt, Robert. "HealthDay: Efforts to Prevent Hospital-Based Infection Falling Short, Survey Finds." MedlinePlus, Mar. 14, 2013.

Professional Guide to Diseases. 9th ed. Ambler, Pa.: Lippincott, 2008.

Surawicz, Christina M. "C. difficile Infection." American College of Gastroenterology Patient Education & Resource Center, Dec. 2012.

What is confidentiality?

Introduction

Confidentiality is important to psychologists in both its legal meaning and its ethical meaning. The legal meaning covers relevant federal, state, and local laws that may affect how much confidentiality can or must be maintained by a mental health practitioner. Ethics refers to moral principles or values; ethically, psychologists may choose to disclose or refuse to disclose information. Such values may be in conflict with the law but in the best interest of the individual research participant, therapeutic client, consultant client, or other party whose information, data, or relationships to the psychologist are being protected.

When individuals enter into a professional relationship with a psychologist, the psychologist provides information to the individuals, informing them of the limits of confidentiality pertaining to their relationship. In research projects, this takes place during the consent process, when participants give permission and agree to participate in the project proposed. Typically, the consent process is overseen by an institutional review board, a group of individuals who ensure that the rights of participants are properly addressed and protected. In therapy, this takes place during the intake process, before treatment begins. In any case, an individual may always disclose personal information as he or she wishes.

Legally, professionals such as psychologists are not allowed to disclose protected information unless given permission to do so by the client. However, some exceptions to this general rule exist. One exception is when clients admit that they may commit harm to themselves. In this situation, the psychologist takes appropriate action to prevent any harm coming to the individuals. The obligation to do so is known as a duty to protect. A second exception is when clients admit that they may commit harm to another person. In this situation, the psychologist takes appropriate action to prevent harm coming to the individual identified as the target of harm. Typically this activity by the psychologist is understood as a duty to warn. It should be noted though that even with these duties, the information shared is only that necessary to achieve the duties to protect or warn. In either situation, what is imperative is that the individuals entering into any agreements with the psychologist be competent. Competency
refers to the legal fitness of the individual to make such a decision. This means the individual is mentally able to understand the consequences of the decision, can make a free choice in the decision, and is choosing to enact the decision.

Importance

Confidentiality is an important protection for a number of reasons. First, confidentiality is important because it protects therapeutic clients, research participants, their private information, and their interests. Second, such protection allows free participation in therapeutic activities, research, and other programs without fear of having private information disclosed without permission. This encourages honesty and trust. Particularly for research endeavors, confidentiality maintains the integrity of the scientific work at hand by dissuading participants from altering their information so as to protect themselves, which could inadvertently damage the research.

Such concerns about confidentiality in research have led to the development of special certificates of confidentiality for government-funded research projects, such as those sponsored by the National Institutes of Health. With a federal certificate of confidentiality, data collected from an individual for the purpose of research are given special protection from forced disclosure (such as with a subpoena). The certificate allows study investigators and their research institutions to refuse to disclose identifying information about participants that could have adverse consequences for the participant if it were disclosed. Information protected could include name, address, identifying numbers such as a Social Security number, criminal history, fingerprints, voiceprints, photographs, history of mental health problems, alcohol or drug use history, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status, pregnancy termination, or other sensitive medical data, such as bodily tissues or genetic information. These protections allow participants to avoid potential consequences such as problems related to reputation, employability, financial standing, and insurability, among others. This protection extends to any type of proceeding (civil, legislative, administrative, or criminal), whether at the federal, state, or local level of government.

Context

In the United States, the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution asserts that people have a right to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects and to be protected against searches and seizures that are unreasonable or not founded in probable cause. With events such as the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, in the United States, concerns over confidentiality and the protection of private information were heightened. Debate raged over the need to balance individual desire for privacy with a strong need for information to protect national security.

In this same context, there are increasing requests for information from marketing companies, health care management organizations, and even the government for the purpose of federally funded research. At the same time, technology is increasing to the point that information shared by one individual could affect that person’s entire family across generations. For instance, one person providing genetic information about family history of illness could affect the ability of that individual’s family members to be insured or to be eligible for certain benefits. Confidentiality therefore is likely to develop as a more complex legal and ethical issue over time, as its relevance to whole systems of people, not just individuals, is recognized.

Bibliography

Alderman, Ellen, and Caroline Kennedy. The Right to Privacy. New York: Vintage, 1997. Print.

Crook, M. "The Risks of Absolute Medical Confidentiality." Science & Engineering Ethics 19.1 (2013): 107–22. Print.

Dennis, Jill Callahan. Privacy and Confidentiality of Health Information. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000. Print.

Givens, Beth, and the Privacy Rights Clearinghouse. The Privacy Rights Handbook: How to Take Control of Your Personal Information. New York: Harper, 1997. Print.

Kress, Victoria E., et al. "Informed Consent, Confidentiality, and Diagnosing: Ethical Guidelines for Counselor Practice." Jour. of Mental Health Counseling 35.1 (2013): 15–28. Print.

Rothstein, Mark A., ed. Genetic Secrets: Protecting Privacy and Confidentiality in the Genetic Era. New Haven: Yale UP, 2000. Print.

Smith, Robert Ellis, and Sangram Majumdar. Ben Franklin’s Web Site: Privacy and Curiosity from Plymouth Rock to the Internet. Providence: Privacy Jour., 2004. Print.

Stimmel, Barbara. "The Conundrum of Confidentiality." Canadian Jour. of Psychoanalysis 21.1 (2013): 84–106. Print.

What is the name of Lord Blakeney's yacht?

The name of Lord Blakeney's yacht is the Day Dream. The first mention of the yacht is in Chapter Three, when Mr. Jellyband informs Lord Anthony that Lady Blakeney's brother, Armand St. Just, will travel to France on the Day Dream.

In Chapter 21, the yacht is described as a 'strong, well-built sea-going' sailboat, and in Chapter 28, we receive the impression that the Day Dream isn't Lord Blakeney's only yacht. Lady Blakeney describes the boat as 'Percy's favorite yacht.' The boat is what she spies in the distance as she waits to warn her husband and his friends of their danger. To Marguerite Blakeney, the boat is the symbol of 'joy and hope' and the one vehicle which will transport her back to her beloved England, 'the land of liberty and of hope.'

After her husband manages to foil the inimitable Chauvelin and to rescue her, Lady Blakeney is carried onto the luxurious yacht. There, Lord Blakeney is able to change into the 'sumptuous clothes' he keeps on hand in his yacht.

What is the significance of Shakespeare using the theme of appearance vs. reality in Hamlet? Why does he use it? How does that tie into the overall...

The overarching problem—the key problem—facing Hamlet is determining the difference between appearance and reality, and it is an issue Hamlet continuously interrogates. From his first encounter with the ghost, Hamlet faces one fundamental problem: is the ghost really the spirit of his dead father, or is it a demon sent by Satan to deceive him into murdering an innocent man? How can he determine who around him is telling the truth and who is lying? More specifically, how can Hamlet determine if Claudius is responsible for the death of Hamlet's father? What, Hamlet keeps asking, is real? What is appearance (a lie)?

Deception permeates the play: Polonius and Claudius hide behind tapestries to spy on Hamlet. Claudius sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to England with secret orders to have Hamlet killed. Hamlet watches in wonder as one of the actors in the travelling drama troupe fakes emotion. When Ophelia dies, Hamlet mocks her mourners and accuses them of false emotion.

Hamlet's Denmark is "rotten," a corrupt place, and Hamlet recognizes that lies (appearances) are at the center of the rot. Uncovering what is real is essential to Hamlet's mission of avenging his father's death, because until he establishes what is true, he cannot ensure justice is being served.

According to Mazower, what have been the primary issues facing Europe in the 20th century?

Dark Continent by Mark Mazower argues that while postcolonialism is often seen as an issue affecting the lives of countries that lived under and escaped from colonial rule, it should also be understood as shaping the evolution of Europe. He argues that as Conrad pointed out in his famous novel, Heart of Darkness, Europeans not only found darkness in Africa but brought their own darkness with them. 

Rather than seeing the social and political conflicts that tore Europe apart as anomalies as Europe marched on a continuous path towards the Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and democracy, instead Mazower sees the rise of authoritarian regimes and internecine wars as part of the inevitable logic of late capitalist imperialism. 

He argues that the forces of tribalism, ethnocentrism, and xenophobia have remained important in Europe, and that authoritarian regimes rose in response to these forces and succeeded by promising their people security and prosperity. He argues that these these forces remain endemic in European culture, as reflected by the rise of far right parties and the forms of tribalism that still make many European nations fissiparous, including Catalan and Basque separatism, the ongoing tensions between Flemish and Walloons in Belgium, and a general inability to assimilate minorities, whether Romani or immigrant, in many European cultures. 

"The calling of the Estates General was Louis XVI's greatest mistake." Discuss.

The Estates General may well have been Louis XVI's greatest mistake! At least, it was his greatest mistake with regards to his career as monarch. For the rest of France-- nobility excluded-- it was a great decision.

The Estates General of 1789 was called for by King Louis XVI to address the economic state of the nation of France. His grandfather and predecessor, Louis XV, had run the government into near bankruptcy with involvement in the American Revolution. What's more, several years of bad weather had put a real stress on the crops of France, and the nation was now experiencing a food shortage. This drove up the prices of food, with the effect of angering a great number of people. The Bread Riots were primarily composed of people who contributed to the production of food yet could not afford to purchase even the  most basic of foods-- bread. 

The dire economic circumstances were exacerbating already underlying tensions to do with the weakened feudal regime. Peasants, who worked the land with little agency in their lives, were keenly aware of their situation. Influenced by Enlightenment philosophy, the increasingly literate commoners of France wanted change. It was at the Estates General that they took control of the situation and essentially told the nobility (including the King) that they would institute reform with or without their help.

The Third Estate (the peasantry) outnumbered the nobility two-to-one. Though the role of the First Estate (the clergy) had previously been to maintain that the feudal system of the Three Estates was a God-given command, many of them sided with the Third Estate during the early days of the Estates General. When the King realized that he would be overpowered by the Third Estate and associated clergy if he did not choose to cooperate, he urged the remaining nobles and clergy to "give in." With this, the Three Estates became the National Constituent Assembly, and King Louis XVI begrudgingly took a back seat in implementing the desired reform.

If he had never called for the meeting of the Estates General, Louis XVI might have remained King for much longer.

Contrast the manner in which Shakespeare presents the idea of villainy in his two plays Romeo and Juliet and Macbeth.

Villainy can be described as cruel, illegal or wicked behaviour with the deliberate intention to either obtain an advantage or to harm that which is the object of such behaviour. The villain is, therefore, a malicious character, more often than not remorseless and self-serving. Such a character would commit a pernicious deed without needing any motivation to do so.

We are confronted with two different kinds of villainy in Romeo and Juliet and Macbeth. In the former, villainy is presented in the shape of a feud between two families. The basis of the fear is never fully explained, but we do know that it exists, as the prologue clearly states:

Two households, both alike in dignity,
In fair Verona, where we lay our scene,
From ancient grudge break to new mutiny,
Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean.

It is this grudge which creates 'new mutiny.' The opposing parties, represented by members of the Montague and Capulet families and their associates, have, once again, openly clashed with one another, causing disruption in the beautiful city of Verona. Many have apparently been hurt in these skirmishes. Because of this, members of both families, who would otherwise have been decent and law-abiding citizens, have committed criminal acts. 

It is the tension between these two households which forms the core of this drama. Events in the play and their consequences are determined entirely by the intense loathing the two parties have for each other, as the prologue confirms:

From forth the fatal loins of these two foes
A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life;
Whose misadventured piteous overthrows
Do with their death bury their parents' strife.
The fearful passage of their death-mark'd love,
And the continuance of their parents' rage,
Which, but their children's end, nought could remove,
Is now the two hours' traffic of our stage . . .

It is this pervasive malice that turns law-abiding citizens into villains. An example of this can be seen in the actions of Tybalt, Juliet's cousin, who so despises the Montagues that he sees Romeo's uninvited entry to the Capulet ball as an offense which demands action and severe sanction. It is only Lord Capulet's stern intervention which stops him from attacking Romeo during the party. Tybalt is extremely upset and declares:

I will withdraw: but this intrusion shall
Now seeming sweet convert to bitter gall.

Tybalt here expresses his deep bitterness and states that Romeo's unwanted visit will spur him on to vengeance. He later challenges Romeo to a duel. Since Romeo has by that time fallen for Juliet, he refuses to fight. This provokes Romeo's friend, Mercutio, into taking up the challenge. Tybalt kills Mercutio and Romeo later kills Tybalt, which leads to his banishment on pain of execution.

In this instance, it is Tybalt's villainy which starts a chain of events that leads to others becoming villains themselves. Romeo becomes a killer, for he dispatches Tybalt and later executes County Paris in self-defense. Friar Laurence, in his naive attempts to bring about goodwill, commits a number of deeds which, for a man in his position, would surely be frowned upon. Ultimately, our two protagonists commit suicide and a lifelong family feud is finally resolved. Ironically, all the villainy eventually results in something good.

In Macbeth, villainy is displayed in its most pernicious form. The brave Macbeth becomes a super-villain when he murders his much beloved liege, king Duncan, to achieve his selfish ambition. His wife, too, displays a vileness and malice which exceeds all bounds. The two manipulate, plot, plan and finally execute a most treacherous deed.

Unlike the situation illustrated in Romeo and Juliet, where circumstance led to circumstance, their villainy is bred from an inherent malice. The depth of their perfidy is informed by their greed. Macbeth becomes a remorseless and bloodthirsty tyrant who seeks to destroy all threats against his position with impunity. There is no redemption. Although at times he seems to display remorse, it is not bred from his concern about the damage he has done to others or his country; it is regret about his personal torment that he expresses. He remains arrogant and selfish to the end.

Lady Macbeth, however, is so overwhelmed by remorse and regret that she loses her sanity and commits suicide. She had become a villain by choice and suffered the consequences.

The witches present villainy in that they intentionally go out to deceive Macbeth and thus create a greater will in him to commit evil. They are malicious and take pleasure in seeing the gullible tyrant hanging on their every word, following their advice and willingly marching towards his own doom. They masterfully use paradox and equivocation to persuade the vile tyrant.

Since their purpose is to spread evil, they take much joy when Macbeth becomes even more ruthless, killing friends and innocents alike. He has Banquo murdered, wipes out Macduff's entire family and goes on a rampage, brutally killing all he deems a threat. Scotland is turned into a bloodbath by the merciless dictator.

In conclusion, the true villains in both plays get their just desserts. It is just a pity that so many innocents' lives are sacrificed in the process.

Character sketch of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell.

Helen Keller's parents sought help from Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, who was famous for inventing the telephone.  He had family members who were deaf, so he had sympathy for Helen's plight.  In her autobiography, Helen described him as being full of "tenderness and sympathy" toward her.  When her parents took Helen to see him, she was a little girl.  She recalled sitting on his knee as he let her play with his watch.  Dr. Bell even "understood [her] signs, and [she] knew it and loved him at once."  Dr. Bell was patient and understanding with Helen in a time when not everyone was.

Helen's parents did not know what to do about their daughter.  They wanted her to be educated and helped.  Dr. Bell suggested that they contact Mr. Anagnos of the Perkins Institution, which was a Boston school for the blind.  It was through Mr. Anagnos that Helen's teacher, Annie Sullivan, came to help Helen learn to communicate.  Helen noted that at the time of their visit to Dr. Bell, she could not have "dream[ed] that that interview would be the door through which [she] should pass from darkness into light, from isolation to friendship, companionship, knowledge, love."   

When Helen was older, Dr. Bell showed her around the World's Fair. She also visited his home on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia.  He was a dear friend to Helen.  He was a man who "[made] every subject he touche[d] interesting."  Though he was an important and famous person, he made time for Helen and was sympathetic to her.  This showed that he was patient and understanding, as well as caring.  He was a loyal friend.

What is strength training?

Strength training, also called resistance training or weight lifting, is a type of exercise that uses resistance to build strength, muscle mass, and endurance. Resistance may be in the form of weights, weight machines, stretchable tubing, or body weight. Using resistance causes muscles to contract, or shorten, which strengthens them.

When a person creates resistance on a muscle, tiny tears damage the muscle cells. After strength training, hormones, nutrients, and proteins in the body repair and replenish muscles, helping them to grow. The damage to the muscles is called
catabolism
, and the repair/growth stage is called anabolism. Building muscle has many positive health effects. It has been shown to help people manage their weight, strengthen their bones, and build up their stamina.

Types of Strength-Training Exercises

Fitness experts group strength-training exercises by the type of resistance used. These exercises can be performed by using free weights or items found in the home, specialized machines found at gyms, resistance tubing, or even one's own body weight. People can use a combination of different strength-training exercises along with cardiovascular exercise to achieve maximum health and performance.

Free Weights

Free weights, such as barbells and dumbbells, can be used to provide resistance. Lifting free weights has many advantages. People do not need expensive equipment or even a gym membership to lift free weights. At home, they can use heavy objects—such as canned goods, bricks, or bottles of water—to exercise their muscles.

Moving and controlling free weights takes great focus and helps people improve their coordination skills. People who have injuries or limited movement can adjust the way they lift free weights to accommodate their needs. In addition, lifting free weights exercises many muscles at once, even ones that are not being specifically targeted. For example, if a person stands and raises weights in front of him, the muscles in the abdomen and back will work to help keep the body steady.

Nevertheless, there are some disadvantages to lifting weights. If people do not use proper form while lifting weights, they may risk serious injury. To prevent injury, people should not lift weights that are too heavy. Furthermore, they should always lift weights—especially heavy weights—with another person, known as a spotter, to ensure they are using correct form. Other disadvantages involve the storage and cost of free weights. Storing free weights and designating an area to lift can be an issue in homes with little free space. Free weights can also be costly if people purchase multiple pieces of equipment, such as weight benches, bars, and weight plates.

Weight Machines

Weight machines are relatively easy to use. People position themselves on the machines, move a pin in the weight stack to the desired weight, and then move the machine by either pushing or pulling on handles or bars. They are safer to use than free weights and do not require as much coordination. Still, people must use good form on the machines so they do not injure themselves, and they should avoid lifting weights that are too heavy.

Using weight machines has several disadvantages. They are large and expensive, so most people must join a gym to use them. Machines usually target only one set of muscles, which means a person must use multiple machines to work different muscle groups. People who are not of average size may have difficulty using the machines correctly, and most machines cannot be adjusted to accommodate people who have limited movement or injuries.

Stretchable Tubing

Stretchable or resistance tubing is made of elastic tubes that stretch to provide resistance. They come in different sizes and thicknesses, which create more or less tension. To use them, people put them around a body part and pull on them to create tension. This causes the muscle to contract. Stretchable tubes are inexpensive, portable, easy to use, and take up little space. They can also target a variety of muscle groups. However, these tubes lose elasticity over time and may need to be replaced. Additionally, they can snap and cause injury.

Body Weight

People do not need free weights, machines, or stretchable tubing to strength train. They can use their own body weight as resistance to perform exercises such as abdominal crunches, leg squats, lunges, pull-ups, push-ups, and more. These types of exercises uses the weight of a person's body to contract the muscles. The major advantage to using one's body weight is that it is free. No special equipment is needed. Also, exercises that rely on body weight can be performed anywhere. A disadvantage to this form of strength training is that the resistance cannot be decreased. Yet, resistance may be increase by altering the way some exercises are performed.

Benefits of Strength Training

Strength training has many benefits. According to the American College of Sports Medicine, a person should work out all the muscle groups to fatigue at least two to three days a week with rest days in between active workout days to achieve maximum results. The major muscle groups include the abdominals, arms, back, chest, legs, and shoulders. Working out a muscle to fatigue means people should perform an exercise with weights that are heavy enough so that they can only perform eight to twelve repetitions. This is just an average number and can change depending on several factors, such as the age, health, and strength of a person.

Research has indicated that the average American does not move enough and leads a sedentary lifestyle. Many people have jobs that keep them inactive during the day. In addition, many people spend much of their free time doing sedentary activities, such as watching television or playing on computers, instead of engaging in physical exercise.

Participating in strength-training exercises builds strength and grows and tones muscles. After the age of thirty, people lose five pounds of muscle every decade. In addition, people lose bone density as they age. Research has proven that performing resistance exercises can help slow or even reverse age-related muscle and bone loss. It can also be used as an exercise-based therapy and aid in weight loss, lower blood pressure, and ease conditions such as depression, arthritis, and back pain.

Bibliography

"Physical Activity: Why Strength Training?" Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web. 20 Mar. 2015. http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/growingstronger/why/

"Resistance Training." eMedicineHealth. WebMD Inc. Web. 20 Mar. 2015. http://www.emedicinehealth.com/strength_training/article_em.htm

"Strength Training: Get Stronger, Leaner, Healthier." Mayo Clinic. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. Web. 20 Mar. 2015. http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/fitness/in-depth/strength-training/art-20046670

What is the place with the lowest altitude on Earth?

When measured with respect to the mean sea level, the lowest point on land (on Earth's Surface) is the Dead Sea in Jordan and Israel. It has an elevation (with respect to the mean sea level) of -414 m or about -1360 feet. 

The lowest natural point on Earth is the Challenger Point in the Mariana Trench. It is at a depth of almost 11 km (11,034 m, to be precise) below the mean sea level. 

The highest point, on the other hand, is the Mount Everest summit and it has an altitude of 8,848 m above mean sea level.

Thus, there is a difference of almost 20 km in the altitude of the highest point and the lowest point on Earth, that is, between Mount Everest Summit and Mariana Trench.

Hope this helps.  

What examples of personification does Bradbury use to describe the distractions around Montag in Fahrenheit 451?

In the book Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, many examples of personification are illustrated.

Foremost, it is important to define personification. In general, personification is when an inanimate object is described as having human qualities or characteristics.

Throughout the book, numerous examples of personification are demonstrated. For example, the description of the machines that saved Mildred’s life after she took too many pills are personified. Montag describes them as almost lifelike or similar to a living snake. However, they are only machines and have no life or control themselves. They are only tools utilized by the operators. As the text reveals:

“It drank up the green matter that flowed to the top in a slow boil. Did it drink of the darkness? Did it suck out all the poisons accumulated with the years? It fed in silence with an occasional sound of inner suffocation and blind searching. It had an Eye.”

Not only did the machine seem to have life-like qualities, but the bedsprings also appear personified. They possess a human action of “squealing.” As the text reveals:

“He heard her roll impatiently; the bedsprings squealed.”

There are numerous personifications in the book. Some personifications appear more monumental while others make a simple comparison between an object and a living being. As a result, the objects seem to come to life.

What is spinal muscular atrophy?

Risk Factors

SMA has a purely genetic etiology and can occur with or without a family history of the disorder. There are no environmental risk factors reported.

Etiology and Genetics

SMA is transmitted in an autosomal recessive pattern whereby a person simultaneously inherits two copies of the disease-causing gene (called SMN1, for survival of motor neuron) at conception. Carriers remain symptom-free because one working copy of SMN1 produces sufficient SMN protein for motor neuron cells to function.

The second gene implicated with SMA is called SMN2 (survival of motor neuron 2). This gene can range in copy number from zero to five copies in each cell. SMN1 and SMN2
are very similar in their composition, differing by only one nucleotide. This nucleotide difference does not change the amino acid generated but does alter the gene splicing (paring down mRNA by editing out noncoding regions of DNA). Usually the protein produced by SMN1 is longer than SMN2, but splicing is not a perfect process, and at times an equally long protein is produced from SMN2 and functions much like SMN1 protein. Thus, a person with SMA that has a high copy number of SMN2 genes is predicted to have a less severe case than someone who does not have any SMN2 genes.

Symptoms

With the exception of Type 0, most infants with SMA are born seemingly healthy and have no immediate symptoms. There is a tremendous range of severity. Generally earlier onset is predictive of a worse prognosis; thus, Type 0 is most severe, while Type IV is comparatively mild. Type 0 symptoms include a lack of fetal movements (at thirty to thirty-six weeks gestation), as well as joint contractures plus difficulty breathing and swallowing as a newborn. Most infants with Type 0 do not survive longer than two months of age. Type I symptoms begin between birth and six months of age and include hypotonia (low muscle tone and strength), paralysis, and mild joint contractures which result in difficulty sitting without support, breathing, and swallowing. Death occurs most commonly before two years of age, typically caused by complications such as respiratory infections. Type II (onset from six to twelve months) symptoms include an inability to sit, but standing or walking unaided is possible. Type III occurs in childhood (over one year of age) and is considerably more mild. Type IV has adult onset of symptoms that include muscle weakness, tremor,
and twitching. All forms of SMA have normal cognition and a high rate of mortality and morbidity.

Screening and Diagnosis

Screening and diagnostic testing for SMA are readily available through commercial laboratories. Carrier screening involves evaluating the SMN1 gene for mutations and determining the number of SMN2 genes via sequencing and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), respectively. Diagnostic testing is recommended if an individual is symptomatic and can help confirm a clinical diagnosis. Confirmation of a mutation may also aid in determining if extended family members should pursue carrier screening. Prenatal diagnosis requires testing fetal cells and thus performing an amniocentesis to sample the amniotic fluid or a chorionic villus sampling (CVS) to biopsy a small portion of the placenta.

Treatment and Therapy

There is no cure for SMA, but treatment is available to ease symptoms. Treatment of recurrent pulmonary infections, as well as tracheotomies, may be necessary. Alternative therapies include long-term ventilation, tube feeding, and physical therapy, which can help in prolonging survival. SMA Type I is a fatal condition; thus, palliative care is also provided.

Prevention and Outcomes

SMA is best prevented by carrier screening and other testing services. With two carrier parents, the risk is 25 percent for future pregnancies also being affected with SMA. There is also a 50 percent risk of having a future child that is an asymptomatic carrier. Lastly, there is a 25 percent chance of having a future child that is completely unaffected.

Prenatal diagnosis is available with the option of ending the pregnancy should it be affected. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) is available to diagnose embryos prior to implantation if pursuing in vitro fertilization; however, the procedure is rarely pursued because insurance coverage is extremely limited.

Bibliography

Cummings, Michael. Human Heredity: Principles and Issues. 8th ed. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole, 2008. Print.

Dunaway, Sally, et al. "Independent Mobility After Early Introduction of a Power Wheelchair in Spinal Muscular Atrophy." Journ. of Child Neurology 28.5 (2013): 576–82. Print.

Firth, Helen V., and Jane A. Hurst. Oxford Desk Reference: Clinical Genetics. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005. Print.

Harper, Peter S. Practical Genetic Counseling. 6th ed. London: Hodder Arnold, 2004. Print.

Sleigh, J. N., et al. "Spinal Muscular Atrophy at the Crossroads of Basic Science and Therapy." Neurmuscular Disorders 3.1 (2013): 96. Print.

Wokke, John H. J. Neuromuscular Disease: A Case-Based Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2013. Print.

To what did the Democratic slogan "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" refer?

This slogan referred to a line of latitude.  “Fifty four-forty” means fifty four degrees, forty minutes North latitude.  This was the line of latitude that some Democrats wanted the United States to have as its northern boundary in the Pacific Northwest.  The slogan calls for the US to go to war if it is not given this boundary.

In 1818, the United States and the United Kingdom signed a treaty in which they agreed to jointly occupy what was called the Oregon Territory. This territory stretched from what is now the southern border of the state of Oregon up to the 54-40 line (the southern limit of Russian Alaska at that time).  By the 1840s, many Americans wanted to expand their territory.  This was, after all, the time of Manifest Destiny.  The most aggressive Americans wanted to expand both in the south and in the north.  They supported war with Mexico to gain more land in the south and they demanded that Britain give the US all of the Oregon Territory.

The slogan “fifty four-forty or fight” refers to this demand.  The slogan meant that the US should go to war with Britain if the British did not give the US all of the Oregon Territory.  The US did not end up going to war with Britain and Britain did not give the US all of the Oregon Territory.  Instead, the US and Britain divided the territory.  They set the border at the 49th parallel, where it now stands.

`(10x - 3y)^12 , n = 10` Find the nth term in the expansion of the binomial.

In order to solve this problem we can use the following equation of the binomial theorem: 

`(a+b)^n =sum_(k=1)^n ((n!)/((n-k)! *k!)) * a^(n-k) * b^k`

where: 

a= first term

b= last term

n = exponent (power in original equation) 

k = term required - 1 

This will be clearer by solving the above example: 

Our example is as follows:

`(10x - 3y)^12`  

In this example we are looking for the 10th term, therefore: 

`a = 10x`

`b=3y`

`n =12`

`k = 10 - 1 = 9` (the 10th term we are looking for so we subtract one from it)

Because we are looking for the 10th term the following equation will be used: 

`t_(k+1) =(n!)/((n-k)! *k!) * a^(n-k) * b^k`

`t_(9+1) = (12!)/((12-9)!(9)!) (10x)^(12-9) * (3y)^9`

`t_10 = 220 (1000x^3)(19683y^9)`

`t_10 = 4330260000 x^3 y^9`

So if we expand our binomial, and if we are looking for the 10th term, our answer is `4330260000x^3y^9`

If the market demand for a product increases, what will happen to production price and production cost?

a. Product price will increase and production costs will fall, resulting in greater profits.

b. Product price will decrease and production costs will rise, resulting in greater profits.

c. Product price will decrease and production costs will rise, resulting in lower profits.

d. Product price will increase and production costs will fall, resulting in lower profits.

e. Product price will increase and profits will increase.

The answer to this question is either Option A or Option E, but we do not have enough information to know which of these two is the best answer.  We can be certain that none of the other options can be correct.

First, we can eliminate Options B and C.  When the demand for a product rises, there is no reason for the price of the product to fall (we must assume that all other variables are being held constant).  This means that those options are wrong.  Similarly, we can reject Option D.  If the sale price of a product goes up and the cost of producing it goes down, profits will clearly rise.  This means that Option D cannot be correct.

This leaves us with Options A and E, but we do not have enough information to know which scenario is correct.  As a firm produces more goods or fewer, its marginal costs change.  However, we cannot know whether its marginal costs will go up or down when it produces more goods, as the firm in this scenario is doing.  This depends on where the firm is on the marginal cost curve.  If the firm is already producing at or above its optimal level (the number of goods that result in the lowest possible marginal cost), its marginal costs will increase when it produces more goods.  In this case, Option E might be correct if the price of the product goes up enough to override the increased cost of production  If, by contrast, the firm is producing fewer goods than optimal, its costs will decrease when it produces more.  In this case, Option A will be correct. 

Clearly, either Option A or Option E must be correct, but we cannot know which is the best answer given the amount of information that we have in this question.

How did the Bill of Rights impact history?

The Bill of Rights was largely intended to protect the liberties of Americans by keeping the federal government from infringing on them, either as individuals or as citizens of state governments. While the Bill of Rights has been interpreted differently at different times, it has, especially since the beginning of the twentieth century, established limits on the powers of government and a clear statement of the rights of Americans. Most of these limits have been established and "fleshed out" by Supreme Court decisions. For example, the Supreme Court's decision in New York Times v. United States (1971) established that the federal government could not exercise "prior restraint" by keeping materials from being published. This protection, the Court ruled, was provided by the First Amendment. In another example, the Supreme Court ruled, citing the Sixth Amendment, that states had to provide attorneys to anyone accused of a felony in Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). These are just two among hundreds of examples of how the Supreme Court has used the Bill of Rights to assert the extent of American liberties under law. In the last century especially, this is how the Bill of Rights has impacted history--by defining American liberties.

Napoleon and the French army were defeated in the Franco-Prussian War and this brought his empire to an end. True or False?

This is true. Napoleon III was the leader of the Second French Empire that existed from 1852 to 1870. The Empire collapsed after France went to war with Prussia. After a series of losses during the war, Napoleon III and his army were forced to surrender at Sedan. News of their surrender led to the invasion of the National Assembly of France and the declaration by Leon Gambetta marking the end of the Second Empire and the beginning of the Third Republic.

France declared war after accusing Prussia of insulting the country during a meeting with the French ambassador. However, at the same time, there were competing interests for going to war. The administration was worried about Prussia’s push for a greater and unified Germany. On the other hand, Napoleon and his Prime Minister saw this as an opportunity to solve political issues in France. Thus, under the pretext of the insult, France declared war on Prussia.

Can you briefly review and summarize The Beak of the Finch?

Many books can be described as "good"; but it is the rare book that really deserves the title of great. In my opinion, The Beak of the Finch deserves to be considered in the latter category. It is not simply a good book worth reading; it is a great book that should form a model for scientific nonfiction for decades to come. It has won half a dozen awards in both science and literature and deserves to win many more.

Writing in a very accessible style that is nonetheless not dumbed-down or oversimplified, Weiner describes the time he spent with Rosemary and Peter Grant, two eminent experimental evolutionary biologists who also happen to be a married couple. He listens to the scientists and faithfully reproduces their research, rather than narrowing it or sensationalizing it as many journalists would.

Yes, experimental evolutionary biologists. The Grants don't simply analyze evolution based on paleontological finds or mathematical theories like most evolutionary biologists—they go out in the field and watch evolution happen, carefully observing and controlling for different variables in actual field experiments. The Beak of the Finch is about this marvelous empirical project.

Before the Grant project, many biologists thought that evolution could not be observed on this timescale, particularly not among what we call metazoa, that is, complex multicellular animals, animals in the usual sense of the word (rather than the much broader concept of Animalia biologists use). The thinking was that evolution could only occur on timescales of at least thousands if not millions of years—but through years of painstaking research, the Grants observed it over years and decades.

It's difficult to overstate the importance of this result; it's a difference of between two and six orders of magnitude. It would be as if we suddenly discovered that snails were outpacing Olympic sprinters.

There is a somewhat informal unit of the rate of evolution, the darwin, which is a 1% change in some trait over 10,000 years; named by Haldane in honor of Darwin, this is about the rate at which Darwin believed evolution should occur. The Grants observed changes on the order of 1% every year—meaning that those finches are evolving at a rate we'd have to measure in kilodarwins.

This fundamentally changes our understanding of how evolution happens—it's not a slow, gradual process in one direction, but a constant rapid oscillation around a slowly-changing equilibrium. Animals can therefore potentially adapt to environmental changes much faster than previously believed—which makes mass extinctions that much more terrifying.

I cannot recommend this book emphatically enough. If you read one book on evolution, read On the Origin of Species. If you read two, read The Beak of the Finch. (If you read three, read The Selfish Gene.)

In Things Fall Apart, Achebe gives his readers a Nigerian society in which names have different meanings. How does the Igbo process of naming shed...

In the Igbo culture that Chinua Achebe presents in Things Fall Apart, names and the naming process are essential in imbuing a child with a sense of identity. Often, the name chosen for a child either reflects the parents’ sense of values or alludes to the circumstances of their birth. In Things Fall Apart, there are two names that stand out and show what Okonkwo holds dear during his exile in Mbanta. While in Mbanta, Okonkwo fathers two children:

“In these seven years he would have climbed to the utmost heights. And so he regretted every day of his exile. His mother's kinsmen had been very kind to him, and he was grateful. But that did not alter the facts. He had called the first child born to him in exile Nneka--'Mother is Supreme'-- out of politeness to his mother's kinsmen. But two years later when a son was born he called him Nwofia--'Begotten in the Wilderness'” (162).

The names of these children reflect Okonkwo’s desire to return to Umuofia, and his resentment of the “womanly” cultural values in Mbanta.

Okonkwo’s praise name, the “Roaring Flame,” is another name that provides a solid identity to a character. He is fiery and quick-tempered, and, as “roaring” implies, at times out of control. This praise name perfectly encapsulates Okonkwo, and again demonstrates the values that he finds important.

These are just two major examples that illustrate how the Igbo culture's birth and praise naming process serves to impart or illustrate particular personality traits or values.

What are some topics throughout the novel that could connect to an essay about the presence of education in Jane Eyre?

Since you are under time pressure, you might consider focusing on Jane Eyre's experiences at Lowood School, which is a harsh, unloving institution for orphan children like herself. Lowood School is a good representation of the type of educational institution available to children with no money, no protector, and no power. You can get most of what you need out of Chapter 5 of the book. You could possibly simply summarize that chapter, picking out the school's worst features. You might want to compare them with the institution which harbored Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist for so many years of his childhood. Jane Eyre went on to become a teacher herself. She became a governess in the household of Mr. Edward Fairfax Rochester where her chief responsibility is to tutor a little girl who is Rochester's ward. Private tutoring was a major form of instruction in England in Victorian times. Being a governess and tutor was one of the few careers open to young unmarried women with middle-class backgrounds and some education. Jane's personal experiences at Lowood School and at Thornfield might be sufficient to give a sample of English education.

Why does Lady Macbeth value being powerful?

Lady Macbeth values power because she enjoys being in control.  She also seems to enjoy feeling superior, and power allows her to feel superior to more people.  When she first learns of the Weird Sisters' statements to Macbeth in his letter, she fears that he will be too gentle and compassionate to "catch the nearest way" to the throne.  Therefore, she begins to plot Duncan's murder, and when Macbeth arrives home, the first thing she does is to start issuing instructions to him about how to act when Duncan arrives.  When Macbeth says that he wants to talk more about their growing plan, Lady Macbeth says, "Leave all the rest to me" (1.5.76).  She is quite comfortable planning the murder herself because she wants it done her way.  She enjoys control, and power is the way to retain it.  So, she orders her husband around as much as possible so that he does what she wants, and then she manipulates him in order to attain a higher position for them both. 

How does Steinbeck present dislike for Crooks in Of Mice and Men?

Crooks is the black stable buck character in John Steinbeck's novella Of Mice and Men. The dislike and prejudice against Crooks is expressed through the dialogue of the story, mostly in Crooks's own words but also by Curley's wife. It centers around racism and segregation.

In chapter two, Candy reveals that he likes Crooks ("Nice fella too.") but does relate the story of the time Crooks is allowed into the bunkhouse and is involved in a fight, presumably because of racial tension. Candy says,

"They let the nigger come in that night. Little skinner name of Smitty took after the nigger. Done pretty good, too. The guys wouldn’t let him use his feet, so the nigger got him. If he coulda used his feet, Smitty says he woulda killed the nigger. The guys said on account of the nigger’s got a crooked back, Smitty can’t use his feet.”

In chapter five, Crooks agonizes over his loneliness and that he is the victim of racism. He tells Lennie that he is not allowed into the bunkhouse where the white workers live, and when the mentally challenged Lennie asks why, Crooks says,

“’Cause I’m black. They play cards in there, but I can’t play because I’m black. They say I stink. Well, I tell you, you all of you stink to me.” 

Crooks lives alone in a room in the barn. He explains to Lennie the loneliness he feels as a result of being segregated because of the reality of racial relations in 1930's America. He tells Lennie,

"S’pose you didn’t have nobody. S’pose you couldn’t go into the bunkhouse and play rummy ‘cause you was black."

Later in the chapter, Curley's wife reinforces the racism which victimizes Crooks. When he tells her to leave his room, she lashes out at him and puts into words the brutality of racism. She informs him that she could get him "lynched" very easily, and she is right. All she would need to do was say he had touched her or made improper advances. She says,

“Well, you keep your place then, Nigger. I could get you strung up on a tree so easy it ain’t even funny.” 

Because of Curley's wife's retaliation, Crooks retreats back to his normal demeanor of quiet and "aloof." In the end of the chapter he tells Candy he doesn't care about going to the farm. He says he was just fooling. He realizes the level of dislike there is for him in the white world.

What is the relationship between HIV/AIDS and substance abuse?

Causes

HIV causes AIDS. The virus enters immune cells, especially CD4 T-helper cells. Dormancy in those cells is possible, and activation of the virus to the replicative stage leads to the destruction of those immune cells. AIDS results when the infected person’s T-helper cell count is reduced to the extent that frequent opportunistic infections occur.

Risk Factors

Drug abuse makes addicts vulnerable to infection. The sharing of needles and cocaine straws, for example, exposes users to each other’s body fluids. Also, intravenous drug abusers inject substances with immunosuppressive effects.

Immunologic defenses also are compromised by the simultaneous abuse of alcohol and tobacco and by personal neglect. The addict also may have impaired functioning of phagocytosis, reduced superoxide production, and reduced T-cell function, making the immune system ineffective at neutralizing the virus.

Also a risk factor for HIV infection is engaging in unprotected sex. Anal and vaginal penetration that causes injury can make a person vulnerable to HIV infection.

Symptoms

The symptoms of HIV infection can be limited to the presence of anti-HIV antibodies. After the reduction of T-helper cell count, otherwise rare cancers, such as Kaposi’s sarcoma, may result. Numerous bacteria, viruses, and fungi cause infection when the immune system is compromised by a reduced count of T-helper cells.

Screening and Diagnosis

Four rapid HIV tests are available. Each has received marketing approval by the US Food and Drug Administration. These tests are OraQuick Advance Rapid HIV-1/2 Antibody Test, manufactured by OraSure Technologies; Reveal G2 Rapid HIV-1 Antibody Test by MedMira; Uni-Gold Recombigen HIV Test, made by Trinity BioTech; and Multispot HIV-1/HIV-2 Rapid Test by Bio-Rad Laboratories. Each of these tests is an HIV enzyme immunoassay (EIA), and each is considered a screening test. Also, each test mandates additional confirmatory tests if the results are positive.

The basis of these tests is the ability to detect anti-HIV antibodies in body fluids. Antibodies are products of the immune system that are produced in response to exposure to a virus and its component proteins. Antigens, or proteins, from the virus are embedded in or affixed to a filter. Because antibodies generated after exposure to HIV bind specifically to the viral proteins, antibodies in a person’s body fluids will bind to the filter exactly where the protein in the test kit was placed. To determine if antibodies from the sample are present on the filter, a second antibody from the test kit is added.

The secondary antibody specifically binds to the person’s antibodies. When an exposed person takes the test, the secondary antibody binds and creates a complex. The complex is created only when the person has anti-HIV antibodies in his or her fluids.

Detection of the complex on the filter paper is possible because the secondary antibodies in the test kit come with an enzyme linked to them. This enzyme catalyzes a reaction that results in a color change. The color is detected by visual inspection of the filter paper. Because these kits detect the presence of antibody in the person’s fluids and not the virus, a positive result requires additional testing.

The polymerase chain reaction works by detecting the genetic material unique to the HIV virus. This assay works by adding the necessary components for the replication of genetic material to the sample. If HIV genetic material is present, it will be multiplied to generate quantities that can be detected by a color-forming reaction not unlike the EIA tests.

Treatment and Therapy

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is the recommended treatment for HIV. HAART is administered as a combination of three or more anti-HIV medications from a minimum of two different classes. Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors comprise one class of anti-HIV drug. These drugs inhibit the HIV enzyme reverse transcriptase by means of blockage with a nucleoside. Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors inhibit the same viral enzyme through means other than the addition of nucleosides. Protease inhibitors block another key enzyme from the virus.

Three additional classes of anti-HIV drugs block functions critical to the infection process. They are entry inhibitors, fusion inhibitors, and integrase inhibitors. Because each class of medications blocks the virus in a different way, the combination of several medications increases the chances of preventing viral replication and decreases the chance that the virus will survive long enough to mutate into a resistant form. Some of the drugs are available as a combination pill of two or more different anti-HIV medications from one or more classes.

Prevention

Prevention of HIV infection and the development of AIDS in the drug abuser centers on behavior modification. Because HIV is a blood-borne pathogen, one should not share needles. The virus also can be transmitted through sharing cocaine straws among users with damaged nasal mucosa.

Sexual activity also can expose participants to body fluids and, thus, the virus. The use of condoms is recommended. The close association of drug abuse and prostitution makes prevention difficult. Despite numerous vaccination strategies tested for the prevention of AIDS or reduction of replication of the HIV virus, no effective vaccine has been found as of 2015.

Bibliography

Levine, Donald P., and Jack D. Sobel, eds. Infections in Intravenous Drug Abusers. New York: Oxford UP, 1999. Print.

Ruiz, Pedro, Eric C. Strain, and John G. Langrod. “HIV Infections and AIDS.” The Substance Abuse Handbook. Philadelphia: Wolters, 2007. Print.

Tortora, Gerard J., Berdell R. Funke, and Christine L. Case. Microbiology: An Introduction. 11th ed. New York: Pearson, 2012. Print.

In Of Mice and Men, why does Curley pick a fight with Lennie, the strongest of all the men? As a bully, wouldn't it have been more realistic for...

Curley is working with a rather shrewd strategy in picking a fight with Lennie in Of Mice and Men.

While Curley certain does probably stand a better chance of beating George in a fight in terms of relative size (comparing George and Lennie), Curley seems to feel that picking on Lennie is a win-win scenario for him.

Being so much smaller than Lennie, there is apparently no way for Curley to “lose face” in the fight.

If Lennie wins then it is only because Lennie is the bigger man. In this sense, a lost fight does not necessarily reflect poorly on Curley. But if Curley wins in a fight against a much bigger man then he will be regarded as having achieved something significant. In that case, his prowess as a boxer would be underscored.

In other words, Curley seems to believe he is picking a fight that he does not really have to win when he antagonizes Lennie.

Of course, Curley has no idea that he might be seriously injured in the fight. He also miscalculates the group’s perception of the conflict, having assumed, it would seem, that Lennie would be more easily riled and drawn into a punching fight.

If Curley could get Lennie to box with him, maybe Curley could hold his own with his pugilism skills. At least he would put up a good fight.

Lennie not drawn in like that and is instead brutalized by Curley, refusing to fight back until he is already bloodied. Lennie’s innocence, passiveness and restraint are noted by all the men before George finally encourages Lennie to fight back.

Curley’s win-win is turned into a double loss for him in this way. The group sees Curley’s aggression against the passive Lennie for what it is - - bullying and abuse - - and Curley is then easily and thoroughly defeated by the larger man.

Curley is also unable to play his trump card, which would have been to assert his authority on the ranch as the owner’s son and fire Lennie.

Slim makes sure of this, clarifying the situation for Curley as he sits on the floor nursing his injured hand.

“He knelt down beside Curley. ‘You got your senses in hand enough to listen?’ he asked. Curley nodded. ‘Well, then listen,’ Slim went on. ‘I think you got you han’ caught in a machine. If you don’t tell nobody what happened, we ain’t going to. But you jus’ tell an’ try to get this guy canned and we’ll tell ever’body, an’ then will you get the laugh.’”

Slim voices the opinion of the group when he says that Curley had it coming to him, but this may not have been the prevailing view had Curley picked on someone who he could get angry or who would fight back in a traditional manner.