What is the theme of Maya Angelou's novel The Heart of a Woman?

Maya Angelou's "The Heart of a Woman" interweaves two stories from Angelou's life: her coming of age as a black woman/mother and the coming of age of the civil rights movement.

The memoir is centered on her struggle to raise her son, Guy. She wants desperately to bring him up as an intelligent, questioning black man who will fight for racial equality. But she also fights to keep him safe and healthy. These tensions come into conflict at times. Throughout the book, watch for Angelou's constant concern about who Guy is associated with and what prejudices are set against him.

Alongside her concern about raising her son, Angelou's other focus is the bringing up of black women. She sees black women as an especially oppressed group. As a civil rights leader, she is constantly fighting the war against racism and oppression. Watch for her interactions with famous civil rights figures.

This public war on racism has consequences in the private raising of her son. "The black mother perceives destruction at every door," she says in the book, "ruination at each window, and even she herself is not beyond her own suspicion." Angelou is not just speaking of general difficulties in being a black mother, but also of her own specific difficulties. Angelou's memoir, then, is partially an exploration of how public work can impact private life. 

What was designed by the Union to defeat the Confederacy in the Civil War?

Many things were designed by the Union to defeat the Confederacy, though the Confederacy was able to acquire many of the same things.  One thing that the Union had a near-monopoly on was the Monitor, which was modeled after the U.S.S. Monitor that fought at the battle of Hampton Roads, Virginia in the first battle of ironclads.  This ship was low on the waterline and had a gun turret, while traditional naval ships of the time had to fire broadsides into their enemies and often board them for hand-to-hand combat.  These Monitors had such a shallow draft that they were terrible for open-ocean combat but were perfect for riverine missions, which was important in a South that had to move goods via rivers due to its shortage of railroads.  

The main thing that allowed the North to defeat the South, however, was the development of a comprehensive strategy.  The North, under the leadership of Winfield Scott, developed this plan to close off Southern ports and to control the Mississippi River, thus keeping imports away from the South and cutting it in half.  By 1864, both Grant in the Eastern Theater and Sherman in the West were able to coordinate their attacks thanks to the telegram in order to make it more difficult if not impossible for the Confederacy to shift men from one theater to the other.  It was both technology and this innovative strategy that allowed the North to defeat the South.  

What are John and Lorraine writing and why?

John and Lorraine are high school friends who meet a man named Mr. Pignati. After developing a wonderfully loving friendship with him over a period of months, Mr. Pignati dies of a heart attack. But it isn't that simple, really, because John and Lorraine threw a teenage party at his house while he was in the hospital with the first attack. Lorraine feels that the shock of walking in on the party is what killed him. He did die soon after the party, probably from complications from the first heart attack, but Lorraine feels guilty anyway. John says that he mentions to Lorraine that they should write the whole story down to make her feel better. Specifically, he says the following:

". . . we might as well get this cursing thing over with too. I was a little annoyed at first since I was the one who suggested writing this thing because I couldn't stand the miserable look on Lorraine's face ever since the Pigman died" (5).

Lorraine calls it a "memorial epic" because she wants to do something nice in memory of the sweet man who treated her like a daughter. John and Lorraine both have relationship issues with their parents, so as Mr. Pignati bought them things, took them to the zoo, and gave them wine, they truly appreciated him. Writing a story about their experience with Mr. Pignati is their tribute to him.

What is the Wagner Act?

The Wagner Act, which is the name given to the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, was passed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the New Deal. The act gives workers in private industry the right to organize unions, to bargain collectively, and to take collective actions such as strikes. The act also created the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to enforce the law and to investigate and correct unfair labor practices. THE NLRB can also require employers to bargain collectively with unions. 

The Wagner Act helped achieve economic recovery because it provided safeguards for workers. In addition, it helped give workers purchasing power and job security. The decline in the purchasing power of workers, in combination with a dramatic increase in production, was one of the underlying causes of the Great Depression. While the New Deal also gave direct relief, or money and jobs, to the unemployed, it can be argued that the Wagner Act was a better way to achieve economic recovery because it addressed some of the underlying problems in the economy and also gave some protections to workers against future economic problems. In other words, the act addressed recovery, or improving the economy, and reform, the part of the New Deal meant to protect the country against future economic panics and depressions. 

What message does this story convey?

This story conveys the message that what unites all human beings is both our propensity to sin as well as our insistence on concealing our sinful natures from our peers.  In this way, then, we can never truly know or be known by another person because we hide behind the figurative veils that we hold up between ourselves and everyone else. 

Mr. Hooper's first sermon after beginning to wear the veil was about the subject of "secret sin," the sins that we seek to hide from the world, ourselves, and even God (though such concealment from God is ultimately impossible).  Further, his conversation with his fiancee, Elizabeth, hints at this secret sorrow as well, especially when he insists that it is not particular to him but true of all mortals.  Finally, in the end, when Mr. Hooper is on his deathbed, he marvels that the veil has been the reason he's spent his life in isolation when he looks at all those around him and says, "'lo! on every face a black veil!'"  People have ostracized him alone because of the physical veil he wears, a veil which is only symbolic of the human condition of sinfulness, the condition of all people.

How does Atticus treat Walter?

Atticus treats Walter Cunningham respectfully like he does everyone else in Maycomb.  Later in the novel, he even calls Mayella Ewell, “m’am” when cross-examining her during the Tom Robinson trial! When Jem invites Walter to lunch after Walter and Scout got into a little scuffle at school, Atticus begins to talk to Walter about farming, something Walter would know a lot about.  This puts Walter instantly at ease at the Finch dining room table. Because Atticus probably knows that Walter doesn’t bring a lunch to school each day because the Cunninghams are so poor, Atticus wants to make him feel accepted and welcome. Scout laughs at Walter when he pours syrup all over his lunch, and that is when Atticus teaches Scout about "walking around in another person’s skin” to try to understand others. This small episode in the novel allows us to see what kind of man Atticus is, and it also allows for Scout to learn a big lesson about respecting all people. 

What is depression? How does it affect cancer patients?

Risk factors: Depression is most common among cancer patients with advanced disease and with symptoms and discomfort that are not treated or inadequately treated. It commonly coexists with anxiety and is common in individuals with substance abuse problems and other chronic physical and mental disorders. Most cancer patients manifest transient symptoms of depression that are responsive to support, reassurance, and information about what to expect regarding the course, treatment, and prognosis of their disease. Others experience unremitting or recurrent depression requiring aggressive monitoring and intervention. The following list depicts risk factors that favor the development of clinically significant depression within the context of a cancer diagnosis:

• Family history of depression





• Past history of depression, depression treatment, psychiatric hospitalization, or significant psychiatric/personality disorder





• History of unusual, eccentric behavior





• Confusion (may be indicative of an organically based depression)





• Maladaptive coping style





• Dysfunctional family coping or complex family issues





• Limited social support





• Financial problems including lack of insurance





• Multiple roles, obligations, and stressors





• Advanced cancer





• Treatment resulting in disfigurement or loss of function





• Presence of dependent children





• Inadequate symptoms management





• Treatment that has a depressionogenic effect (certain chemotherapies, steroids, narcotics)

Etiology and the disease process: Simplistically stated, the etiology of clinical depression, cancer related or not, is based on a complex interaction of factors. These include genetic predisposition to aberrant neurochemical states that precede or result from an inadequate stress response combined with a distorted, negatively biased cognitive style or worldview that is learned and reinforced early in life. This multidimensional framework indicates need for a combined psychopharmacologic and psychotherapeutic treatment approach that is well supported in the medical literature. Clinical depression can present as a single episode, be chronic and unremitting, or occur over time with periods of remissions and exacerbations.

A crisis framework is often used to describe the occurrence of depression in the context of cancer. The acute crisis response (ACR) typically occurs at transitions in the disease trajectory (diagnosis, treatment initiation, recurrence, treatment failure, disease progression). The ACR is characterized by symptoms of anxiety and depression that usually resolve within a short time period. Time frames are variable, but the ACR usually resolves when individuals know what to expect in terms of treatment, receive reassurance that discomfort can be controlled, and mobilize usual coping strategies and support systems. When symptoms worsen rather than resolve over time or coping mechanisms are insufficient, treatment for depression must be considered regardless of whether diagnostic criteria for a clinical diagnosis are met.

Incidence: Prevelance rates vary and depend on the population studied, site and stage of disease, and method used to measure depression. Prevalence rates among cancer patients range from 5 percent (lower than general population rates) to 90 percent. In general, studies that use established diagnostic criteria report rates of depression of about 25 percent. Rates of depression are highest among patients with advanced cancer and in studies in which stringent diagnostic guidelines are not used.

Symptoms: Symptoms of depression in cancer populations include the following:

• Persistent sad mood





• Loss of interest or pleasure in typically pleasurable activities





• Feelings of guilt, worthlessness, helplessness





• Crying, not easily comforted





• Frequent thoughts of death or suicide





• Trouble concentrating, indecisiveness





• Appetite change





• Diminished energy that may be mixed with restlessness and anxiety





• Fatigue, loss of energy





• Insomnia or hypersomnia

Diagnosis of cancer-related depression relies heavily on the presence of affective symptoms (the first five symptoms in the list). Neurovegetative symptoms (the last five symptoms in the list) that characterize depression in physically healthy individuals are not good predictors of depression in cancer patients because cancer and its treatment produce similar symptoms. Additional behaviors suggestive of depression include refusal, indecisiveness, or noncompliance with treatment; persistent anxiety and sadness, unresponsive to usual support; unremitting fear associated with procedures; excessive crying, hopelessness that does not diminish over time; an abrupt change in mood or behavior; eccentric behavior or confusion; and excessive guilt or self-blame for illness.

Screening and diagnosis: A formal diagnosis of depression is based on fulfillment of criteria outlined in the American Psychiatric Association’s
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The diagnostic subtypes of depression include major depressive disorder (severe depression that lasts for more than two weeks and is particularly amenable to pharmacologic treatment), adjustment disorder with depressed features (depression that occurs in response to a clearly defined event or stressor), dysthymia (chronic, low-level depression that pervades an individual’s personality and daily life), and bipolar disorder (a genetically determined severe form of depression that may or may not alternate between depressive lows and manic highs and is responsive to mood-stabilizing, pharmacologic agents). Major depression and adjustment disorder are common diagnoses among individuals with cancer. Dysthymia and bipolar disorder usually precede a cancer diagnosis or occur for the first time following cancer diagnosis in those genetically predisposed.

Depressive symptoms not severe enough or of sufficient duration to achieve diagnostic status are the most common type of depressive phenomena in individuals with cancer. Because a formal diagnosis is not present, these symptoms are often ignored despite a common, negative impact. More research on the simultaneous occurrence of cancer and depression is needed, including symptom profiles, clinical treatment trials, and related outcomes.

A number of tests screen for depression, but they have not been consistently incorporated into clinical care. Nonpsychiatric providers fail to diagnose and treat depression in as many as 50 percent of cancer patients with depressive disorders. Obstacles to recognizing depression include inadequate provider knowledge of diagnostic criteria, competing treatment priorities in oncology settings, time limitations in busy offices, concern about the stigma associated with a psychiatric diagnosis, limited reimbursement, and uncertainty about the value of screening mechanisms for case identification. In general, regardless of whether screening measures are used, if symptoms do not remit in a reasonable time frame, evaluation of depressive symptoms by a psychiatric specialist should be sought.

Treatment and therapy: Psychosocial interventions can exert an important effect on the overall adjustment of patients and their families to cancer and its treatment. Factors contributing to the diagnosis of depression should influence the treatment approach. Treatments include psychopharmacologic treatment, individual psychotherapy, group therapy, family therapy, marital therapy, or some combination of these.

Antidepressant medication should be chosen on the basis of diagnostic subtype, treatment response, and side effect profile. Bipolar disorder is usually treated with a mood stabilizer, requiring careful monitoring and adjustment, especially during active treatment, as therapeutic blood levels are narrow and can shift dramatically in response to electrolyte and metabolic changes. Major depression is commonly treated with one of several classes of antidepressant medication, commonly a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) or a a selective serotonin and norepinepherine reuptake inhibitor (SSNRI). Dosages are typically lower than required in healthy individuals and can positively affect other symptoms that the patient might be experiencing, such as pain and anxiety. In the oncology setting, a multimodal treatment approach is most effective in treating depression and can have a positive impact on a range of psychosocial and medical outcomes.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: Left untreated, depression can produce a range of negative outcomes from diminished quality of life to noncompliance with treatment to diminished survival. Depression can be prevented in some individuals by providing preemptive counseling, education, support, and information about resources. Early recognition and treatment offer the best hope for rapid remission. Modern therapies are effective in treating depression even among cancer patients who are in progressive and terminal stages of illness. Treatment can vastly improve quality of life and diminish suffering; thus routine screening and treatment should be a universal aspect of comprehensive cancer care .

Akechi, Tatsuo, et al. “Major Depression, Adjustment Disorders, and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Terminally Ill Cancer Patients: Associated and Predictive Factors.” Journal of Clinical Oncology 22.10 (2004): 1957–65. Print.

Carr, D., et al. Management of Cancer Symptoms: Pain, Depression, and Fatigue. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment 61. AHRQ Publication No. 02-E032. Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2002. Print.

"Depression." National Cancer Institute. Natl. Institutes of Health, 28 Aug. 2014. Web. 2 Oct. 2014.

"Depression and Cancer." National Institutes of Mental Health. Natl. Institutes of Health, 2011. Web. 2 Oct. 2014.

Fleishman, S. “Treatment of Symptom Clusters: Pain, Depression, and Fatigue.” Journal of the National Cancer Institute: Monographs 2004.32 (2004): 119–23. Print.

Lloyd-Williams M. “Screening for Depression in Palliative Care Patients: A Review.” European Journal of Cancer Care 10 (2001): 31ff. Print.

Parker, P. A., W. F. Baile, C. de Moor, and L. Cohen. “Psychosocial and Demographic Predictors of Quality of Life in a Large Sample of Cancer Patients.” Psychooncology 12.2 (2003): 183–93. Print.

Patrick, D. L., et al. “National Institutes of Health State-of-the-Science Conference Statement: Symptom Management in Cancer: Pain, Depression, and Fatigue, July 15–17, 2002.” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 95 (2003): 1110ff. Print.

Walker, Jane, et al. "Integrated Collaborative Care for Major Depression Comorbid with a Poor Prognosis Cancer (SMaRT Oncology-3): A Multicentre Randomised Controlled Trial in Patients with Lung Cancer." Lancet Oncology 15.10 (2014): 1168–76. Print.

According to Arthur Miller's The Crucible, what circumstances motivate people to lie?

Love, or lust, seems to be what motivates Abigail Williams to lie.  Early in Act I, she tells John Proctor, her former lover,  that there is no witchcraft involved in the illnesses of Betty Parris and Ruth Putnam.  However, her later accusation of John's wife Elizabeth seems to have been done to get Elizabeth out of the way so Abigail and John can be together again. 

Greed also seems to motivate characters to lie.  A friend of Giles Corey heard Thomas Putnam imply that he encouraged his daughter Ruth to accuse one man of witchcraft so his land would go up for auction, making it available for Putnam to purchase.  According to Corey, only Putnam has enough money to be able to afford such a big piece of land.

It is possible the other girls were compelled to lie out of fear of Abigail, especially after she promised to come to any who spoke against her "with a pointy reckoning" in the middle of the night.  Mary Warren, certainly, seems to lie, accusing Proctor of witchcraft when it becomes obvious that Abigail is going to cry out on her next.

Tituba lies out of fear as well, but not out of fear of Abigail.  Tituba lies out of fear for her own safety.  After Reverend Parris threatens to beat her and Putnam says that she must be hanged, Tituba (falsely) confesses her involvement with the devil so they will, she hopes, not punish her.

Some characters -- like Deputy Governor Danforth -- lie or cover up the truth as a result of their desire to retain authority.  It is fairly obvious, especially by Act IV, that Danforth's primary concern is maintaining the authority of the court and his decisions, rather than making sure that the truth is revealed by the court.  Thus, even when it seems as though Abigail and Mercy Lewis have been lying, he ignores their possible guilt because it would contradict the righteousness of the court's actions so far.

Explain the purpose of Birkenau in the book Night.

Birkenau is first referred to in section two of Elie Wiesel's memoir Night. It was the "reception center" to Auschwitz and the first destination for the Jews of Sighet. It was at Birkenau that the notorious Dr. Mengele imposed his "selection." Those Jews who were considered fit to work were spared and pointed to the left. Those who were to be liquidated went to the right and the crematories. Elie and his father are pointed to the left, in no small part because a fellow Jew tells them to lie about their ages. It is at Birkenau where Elie's faith in God is shattered as he witnesses children thrown into a pit of fire. The flames which Madame Schächter prophesied on the train had come true.

Aside from the selection, the main purpose of Birkenau was to filter the Jews through a series of stations including a shedding of clothing except for shoes and belt, a barbershop where their heads and bodies were shaved, and an area for disinfection where the Jews were doused with petrol. During this time the SS also sought out strong men to work in the crematories. Elie relates the story of one particularly well built man who was chosen for the crematory and had to put his own father into the oven. Eventually the Jews were taken to a barracks where they were given prison clothes. Elie and his father were then transferred into the main camp of Auschwitz where they waited for three weeks before going to the work camp at Buna where they spent several months.

What is Gulf War syndrome?

Causes and Symptoms

A 2008 report by the US Department of Veterans Affairs, Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses, concluded that what has been called Gulf War syndrome should be recognized as an illness, characterized by a complex of multiple symptoms, that resulted from service in the 1990–1991 Gulf War. This illness affected more than 25 percent of the 700,000 veterans of this war.

Gulf War syndrome is characterized by flulike symptoms, which sufferers complain of experiencing simultaneously but that do not indicate any specific known disease. Such physical symptoms include chronic fatigue, fever, muscle and joint pain and weakness, and intense headaches. Some patients report episodes of memory loss, insomnia, nightmares, and limited attention spans as well as neuropsychological disorders, such as depression, anxiety attacks, and mood swings. Respiratory problems, diarrhea and gastrointestinal distress, blurred vision, arthritis, bleeding gums, hair loss, and skin rashes sometimes accompany other symptoms.

When returning veterans first complained about these symptoms, physicians disagreed about the causal factors of Gulf War syndrome. Many of the symptoms could also be signs of other war-related disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or exposure to wartime toxins, bacteria, or viruses. Furthermore, it was difficult for researchers to prove any laboratory abnormality or unique characteristic for this disorder or to isolate any organ system as the primary system affected by this condition. Given this, most medical professionals assumed that Gulf War syndrome was a condition representing factors of several diseases but that is not a separate disease. This diagnostic ambiguity frustrated many Gulf War veterans, who wanted and needed accurate diagnoses and effective treatments.

Gulf War illness is associated with biological alterations primarily in the nervous system and brain. Strong evidence exists that the illness is associated with exposure to two types of neurotoxins: pyridostigmine bromide (PB) pills, which had been intended to protect humans from the effects of nerve agents; and organophosphate pesticides, used during deployment. Early evidence suggested that the illness was related to exposure to substances such as multiple vaccines or fumes from burning oil wells, but these causes have since been ruled out. What is clear, however, is that Gulf War illness is not just PTSD. It is true that some Gulf War veterans have PTSD, but this does not explain the separate problem of Gulf War illness. A 2013 study published in PLoS ONE identified a number of characteristic brain changes in veterans with Gulf War syndrome, particularly increased axial diffusivity in the right inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, a part of the brain involved in fatigue, pain, and emotional regulation. Researchers hope that this discovery will lead to the development of more accurate diagnostic criteria for Gulf War syndrome.

Treatment and Therapy

Because they do not think their concerns are being seriously addressed, many veterans rely on self-diagnosis based on other veterans’ accounts exchanged orally, in the press, or on the Internet. Self-medication with over-the-counter pain relievers is a common treatment that many veterans depend on for the alleviation of symptoms. Physicians prescribe more potent pharmaceuticals and physical therapy to alleviate symptoms and to reinforce patients’ immune systems. The American, Canadian, and British governments have established medical programs through publicly funded veterans’ administrations and privately endowed medical institutions to research the syndrome’s causes, ascertain its etiology, identify derivative presentations of the syndrome, develop effective treatment methods, and offer medical care for veterans exhibiting Gulf War syndrome symptoms.

Physicians recommend that some veterans suffering Gulf War syndrome undergo counseling to address neuropsychological symptoms and to assist in the readjustment to peacetime or civilian life and the frustration with enduring a chronic and unidentified illness. Exercise, a nutritional diet, and support groups are also helpful to many veterans suffering Gulf War syndrome. Genetic testing of veterans and their spouses is also sometimes pursued to determine causation of birth defects in some veterans’ children, which are often incorrectly attributed to Gulf War service. Complications associated with treatment of Gulf War syndrome include possible common side effects of pain relievers, such as drowsiness. Patients also risk becoming addicted to pain relievers that they use to numb the ever-present aches associated with chronic illnesses.

Perspective and Prospects

Originally identified when some American, British, and Canadian Gulf War veterans complained of various ailments after returning home in 1991, Gulf War syndrome was sensationalized in the press as a mystery illness. Physicians familiar with military medical history recognized similarities with symptoms documented in soldier populations as early as the American Civil War. This awareness suggested that the syndrome was indicative of a common wartime factor rather than a unique occurrence in the Gulf War.

Gulf War syndrome became politicized as government officials and veterans disagreed regarding the description of and funding for treatment of the syndrome. After clinical investigations of twenty thousand Gulf War veterans, the Institute of Medicine declared that no Gulf War syndrome existed, although some soldiers did suffer nonchronic illnesses, such as malaria. Five independent panels confirmed the conclusion that no unique case of an illness had been proven.

Physicians and scientists representing the Departments of Defense, Veterans Affairs, and Health and Human Services stated that the rates of incidence of Gulf War veterans’ symptoms, hospitalization, and mortality are not greater than those reported for the general population and that many veterans may have already been genetically predisposed to certain physiological conditions. They also questioned why veterans from other countries, especially Arab nations, did not report syndrome symptoms, nor were any similar reports issued after World War II soldiers returned from the Persian Gulf.

In 2002, in what veterans called a “stunning reversal,” the US Department of Defense admitted that there is increasing evidence that neural damage affects some veterans of the Gulf War and doubled research funding. The change in stance was partly in response to research emanating from the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas and the US Department of Veterans Affairs. Using a statistical technique called factor analysis, researchers at these facilities identified unusual clusters of symptoms that could be divided into syndromes. Syndrome 1 involved sleep and memory disturbances, syndrome 3 involved joint and muscle pain, while syndrome 2, the most serious, involved confusion and dizziness. Using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), the research team found that veterans with syndrome 2 had lost nerve cells in the brain structures that are involved with the symptoms of the syndrome. Moreover, syndrome 2 veterans were also approximately eight times more likely as healthy veterans to have had a bad reaction to the PB tablets. Researchers surmise that chemical weapons and the PB tablets that were designed to protect against them affect the same physiological pathway. The increasing scientific evidence of real physiological damage among veterans has helped spur the US government to begin more strenuous investigation into its causes. In 2002, the Department of Veterans Affairs appointed a Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses.

This committee’s 2008 report provided a clearer focus for developing better treatment for Gulf War illness and a focus on how this illness may interact with other conditions. Research in this area continues through federally mandated treatment programs with the Veterans Administration (VA) and through work done independently by universities.

Bibliography:

Blanck, Ronald R., et al. “Unexplained Illnesses Among Desert Storm Veterans: A Search for Causes, Treatment, and Cooperation.” Archives of Internal Medicine 155 (February 13, 1995): 262–268.

Bloom, Saul, et al. Hidden Casualties: Environmental, Health, and Political Consequences of the Persian Gulf War. Berkeley, Calif.: Arms Control Research Center, North Atlantic Books, 1994.

Eddington, Patrick G. Gassed in the Gulf: The Inside Story of the Pentagon-CIA Cover-up of Gulf War Syndrome. Washington, D.C.: Insignia, 1997.

"Gulf War and Health: Treatment for Chronic Multisymptom Illness." Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, January 2013.

Hersh, Seymour M. Against All Enemies: Gulf War Syndrome, the War Between America’s Ailing Veterans and Their Government. New York: Ballantine Books, 1998.

Office of the Secretary of Defense. National Defense Research Institution. A Review of the Scientific Literature as It Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses. 8 vols. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1998–2001.

Rayhan, Rakib U., et al. "Increased Brain White Matter Axial Diffusivity Associated with Fatigue, Pain and Hyperalgesia in Gulf War Illness." PLoS ONE 8, no. 3 (March 20, 2013): e58493.

Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses. Gulf War Illness and the Health of Gulf War Veterans: Scientific Findings and Recommendations. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2008.

Steele, Lea, Antonio Sastre, Mary M. Gerkovich, and Mary R. Cook. "Complex Factors in the Etiology of Gulf War Illness: Wartime Exposures and Risk Factors in Veteran Subgroups." Environmental Health Perspectives 120, no. 1 (January, 2012): 112–118.

Wheelwright, Jeff. The Irritable Heart: The Medical Mystery of the Gulf War. New York: W. W. Norton, 2001.

What makes the presentation of Chapter 15 in The Grapes of Wrath cinematic?

Chapter 15 can be considered cinematic because it provides an overview of the social situation during the Great Depression, and the exhibition of charity to the migrants appeals to the human interest factor.

One of the intercalary chapters of The Grapes of Wrath, Chapter 15 presents a scenario of one of the restaurants along Route 66, the route that crosses the country. Route 66 is the path of the wealthy on vacation and the people in flight as they head for the promised land of California, where there is hope and the possibility of a new beginning.

Certainly, a film could be made of the various people who enter the short-order restaurants near the gas stations along Route 66. Inside these restaurants is a tableau of the people who compose America of the 1930s. There are the wealthy who travel in their luxury cars and stop only for a cold drink that they complain is not cold:

The woman will use six paper napkins and drop them on the floor. The man will choke and try to put the blame on Mae [the waitress].

The truck drivers, however, are generous. They leave a quarter for their coffee and pie, which gives a dime for the waitress.

In one scenario, one of the many migrant cars stops: a 1926 Nash, loaded with pans and mattresses. The man asks Mae, the waitress, if he may have some water for his radiator; after he fills the radiator, his boys drink from the hose. Inside the cafe, he humbly asks Mae if he may buy a ten-cent loaf of bread, but Mae says they do not sell loaves; however, they have sandwiches for sale. Embarrassed, the man explains that he can only afford the bread. Al, the boss, tells her to sell him a loaf. Mae pulls a loaf out, telling the man that it costs fifteen cents, but Al orders her to give it to him for ten cents. When the two little boys, dressed only in overalls, longingly eye the peppermint sticks, the man, who has pulled out a penny with his dime, asks how much they cost. Mae then becomes generous, saying they are "two for a penny." The little boys heave a happy sigh and clutch the peppermints to their sides as they walk out, then leap into the car and burrow out of sight as their father starts the old car and makes his way onto the highway and heads West.

One of the truck drivers named Bill says, "Them wasn't two-for-a-cent candy."
"What's that to you?" Mae said fiercely.
"We got to get goin'" said the other man. "We're droppin' time."
Bill put a coin on the counter and the other man looked at it and reached again and put down a coin.

As they say good-bye, Mae calls to them, "You got change." "You go to hell," calls back Bill, and they climb into the truck. Mae calls Al's name softly. He looks as Mae points to the coins, and goes back to his grill without a word. "Truck drivers," Mae says reverently.

From the random acts of charity that are extended to them as they travel, the migrants regain faith in humanity and life, as do the waitress and owner of the short-order restaurants along Route 66.

What is free-form or open-form verse?

Free form or open form verse describes poetry that does not follow rules or standards of rhyme, meter, and rhythm. In contrast, closed or fixed form verse follows the rules and patterns of these characteristics. Free or open verse is considered a little more modern because it does not follow these "rules" of what poetry should look and sound like. Sometimes free form verse has a quality more like the natural flow of speech.

Let's compare two poems: one free form, one fixed form.

The World Below the Brine, by Walt Whitman, is an example of free or open form verse. Here is an excerpt:

"...Sluggish existences grazing there suspended, or slowly crawling close to the bottom,

The sperm-whale at the surface blowing air and spray, or disporting with his flukes,

The leaden-eyed shark, the walrus, the turtle, the hairy sea-leopard, and the sting-ray,

Passions there, wars, pursuits, tribes, sight in those ocean-depths, breathing that thick-breathing air, as so many do..."

Note how this poem doesn't ascribe to fixed patterns of rhyme and rhythm.

Now, let's have a look at Edgar Allen Poe's Annabel Lee. The poem begins:

"It was many and many a year ago,

   In a kingdom by the sea,

That a maiden there lived whom you may know

   By the name of Annabel Lee;

And this maiden she lived with no other thought

   Than to love and be loved by me."

Even in this first stanza of the poem, we can see a very clear pattern of rhyme, rhythm, and meter. 

What is stuttering?

Causes and Symptoms

Stuttering is usually recognized as a child develops enough language skill to speak in complete sentences, beginning around three years of age. Typically, the child repeats the beginning sounds of a word, or whole words, before continuing with the sentence, as in, “I l-l-l-like to p-p-p-pet my ca-ca-cat.” True stuttering must be differentiated from developmental dysfluency and dysfluency caused by unusually severe environmental or social pressures. Developmental dysfluency is normal, occurring in the three- or four-year-old child whose brain works faster than his or her mouth. This child may repeat parts of words, words, or parts of phrases, especially when excited. When a child feels significantly anxious, language may become dysfluent, or broken up and difficult to understand. This is not true stuttering, and treatment should be aimed at alleviating the anxiety or stress.

True stuttering is less common than the two dysfluencies just described, and it occurs more often in boys. Frequently, the true stutterer is consistently dysfluent on the same sounds or words. There is consistency in repetitions, prolongations, pauses, grammatical forms, and rate of emission of dysfluency. Often, the child will overcome a verbal hurdle by using certain actions such as eye blinking, finger snapping, or foot tapping.

Treatment and Therapy

Treatment of true stuttering by a competent speech pathologist is imperative, and the prognosis, although variable, can be good. Parents and teachers should be alerted to alleviate any emotional stress that is unusual or severe. Absolutely essential is the ability of all adults to deal with the stuttering child without calling attention to the speech patterns or mannerisms. Practicing reading aloud, especially poetry, and singing—all in the privacy of the company of a caring adult—may help.

Perspective and Prospects

The great ancient Greek orator Demosthenes was dysfluent and allegedly practiced talking with pebbles in his mouth until he could speak clearly. Stuttering does not preclude a person becoming successful in any endeavor. Modern speech therapy and understanding adults can be of great benefit to a child who stutters. The 2010 film The King's Speech, which focused on King George VI of England's work with a speech therapist, stimulated public discussion of stuttering and its treatment. Colin Firth received an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of King George in the film.

Bibliography

Cole, Patricia R. Language Disorders in Preschool Children. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1982.

Hamaguchi, Patricia McAleer. Childhood Speech, Language, and Listening Problems: What Every Parent Should Know. 2d ed. New York: Wiley, 2001.

Martin, Katherine L. Does My Child Have a Speech Problem? Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1997.

Pinker, Steven. The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New York: HarperCollins, 2007.

Plante, Elena, and Pelagie M. Beeson. Communication and Communication Disorders: A Clinical Introduction. 3d ed. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon, 2008.

Stuttering Foundation. http://www.stuttersfa.org.

How did Soviet leaders Khruschev and Gorbachev try to undo the worst abuses of the Stalin era, and to what extent were their reforms successful?

Nikita Khrushchev's contributions to the end of Stalinism have often been, fairly, one might add, overshadowed by his contributions to the heightening of the Cold War tensions between the Soviet Union and its satellites on the one side and the United States and its allies on the other. Khrushchev did, however, play a major role in delegitimizing the "cult of personality" Joseph Stalin had created during the unbelievably brutal years of the latter's rule. 

That Khrushchev was serious about moving the Soviet Union away from the indescribably repressive atmosphere in which his predecessor and former ally Stalin had functioned was evident in the text of his most famous speech, which occurred during the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's 20th Congress. On February 25, 1956, Khrushchev, having successfully outmaneuvered his rivals for power following Stalin's death, gave an impassioned speech before the Party leadership in which he condemned Stalin's "cult of personality" and, more significantly, his predecessor's perversion of socialist revolution for the purposes of self-preservation. As Khrushchev stated in this speech, Stalin had utilized the Party apparatus for the nefarious purpose of eliminating his enemies. In the following passage, the newly-established leader stated:

"Stalin originated the concept 'enemy of the people.' This term automatically made it unnecessary that the ideological errors of a man or men engaged in a controversy be proven. It made possible the use of the cruelest repression, violating all norms of revolutionary legality, against anyone who in any way disagreed with Stalin, against those who were only suspected of hostile intent, against those who had bad reputations."

By delegitimizing the cult of personality of Stalin, Khrushchev made it politically-palatable for Soviet Party members to strike a more moderate tone and to pursue economic policies less-inhumane and less-counterproductive than those forced through by Stalin.

Mikhail Gorbachev played an instrumental role in eliminating, at least for a time, the totalitarian political system that had dominated Russia and its surrounding territories (i.e., colonies) for many years. His policies of perestroika and glasnost--restructuring of the economy and opening of the political atmosphere to freedom of expression--were without precedent in Russian history. People previously imprisoned under the harshest conditions for speaking their minds were now free to criticize their leaders and advocate alternative political and economic policies. Fortunately for the vast Russian Empire but unfortunately for the vanity of the Russian populace, his policies enabled the reemergence of independent nations along Russia's periphery--a major bone of contention for Russian nationalists today who remain nostalgic for the lost empire that had its seat in Moscow. Also unfortunate for the Russian people, the end of the monopoly on power previously enjoyed by the Communist Party left a vacuum into which moved not just legitimate democratic movements, but avaricious oligarchs, gangsters, and former members of the secret police (one of whom rules with iron fist today: Vladimir Putin) all of whom put their own interests ahead of the populations.

What is Abigail's relationship to John and Elizabeth Proctor? What does Betty hear that makes her clap her hands over her ears and whine? Why...

Abigail's relationship to John and Elizabeth Proctor is, from the outside, that of an employee to her former employer.  She used to work for the Proctors in their home (in the position which is currently occupied by Mary Warren), but she was let go seven months prior to the start of the story.  Further, Elizabeth Proctor fired her because she was having an affair with John and Elizabeth found out.  She still loves John and seems to believe that he still loves her too.

When Betty claps her hands over her ears, she seems to do so as a result of hearing the words "'going up to Jesus'" being sung below stairs.  Mrs. Putnam assumes that it is because "She cannot bear to hear the Lord's name!" and we don't really get an explanation other than that.  Such a symptom is considered to be a sure sign of someone's being the victim of witchcraft.  Perhaps Betty is simply anxious and the song makes her more so. 

Finally, Parris seems to feel resentful of his parishioners because he believes that a number of them are participating in a "faction that is sworn to drive [him] from [his] pulpit."  Further, he has "fought [...] three long years to bend these stiff-necked people to [him]" and now he feels that it could all come to nothing if they learn of his niece and daughter's activities.  He seems, then, not to have a great deal of respect for the people of Salem -- calling them stiff-necked and implying that they are stubborn and, perhaps, not very intelligent.  Moreover, there is some disagreement about how much he is supposed to earn: sixty pounds plus six for firewood or sixty-six pounds plus firewood.  This seems to be a point of pride for Parris who is "not used to this poverty."  He argues for quite a while with Proctor and Giles Corey over this point.  They will not give him the deed to his home either -- but apparently they never give the minister the deed to this house -- though he believes this shows a lack of confidence in him.

In Hope Was Here, what did Hope's mother name her when she was born?

In Hope Was Here, written by Joan Bauer, the main character's name given to her by her mother is Tulip. Her mother is barely present in her life, only popping up occasionally, and has abandoned her to the care of her Aunt Addie. Given her nearly nonexistent relationship with her mother and her dislike of the name "Tulip," she changes her name to Hope when she is twelve years old. Hope is supported in the name change by her aunt and ultimately decides on the name Hope because she believes hope to be the best thing that anyone could have. In fact, hope is Hope's guiding philosophy through the course of the book and she attempts to remain hopeful and optimistic in the face of difficulties and disappointments. 

What are some passages in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird that signal Jem as being either a leader or a follower?

Some examples of Jem acting as a leader in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird can be seen in the various games he invents for himself, Scout, and Dill to play together. One particularly good example is seen on the day he announces the new game they will play:

I know what we are going to play. ... Something new, something different. ... Boo Radley. (Ch. 4)

Jem further explains they will each play a different role in the Radley household and act out the rumors and myths they know concerning Arthur Radley's life, whom the children call Boo Radley. Scout is assigned the role of Mrs. Radley; Dill is to play "old Mr. Radley"; and Jem plays Boo. Jem continues to act as a leader when he finds a way to rebel against his father. As soon as Atticus realizes what the children are playing and expresses hope that they aren't playing a game, Jem asserts that Atticus didn't actually tell them to stop playing; therefore, they can still play if they "simply change the names of the characters" (Ch. 5).

In contrast, Jem acts as a follower when under the influence of Dill. Jem's decision to play the Boo Radley game was the result of Dill's curiosity about what Boo looks like. The plan was to provoke Boo to come out of his house so Dill could finally see him. When the game and their other attempts fail, Dill thinks of one more approach that Jem willingly agrees to--trespassing on the Radleys' property at night to try and get a look at Boo through a window. We can tell trespassing is Dill's plan, not Jem's, because it's Dill who gives the signal to Jem to start their adventure, stretching, yawning, and saying, as Scout describes, "altogether too casually, 'I know what, let's go for a walk'" (Ch. 6). At Dill's cue, Jem gladly follows along and tries to persuade Scout to go home; when she refuses, Scout feels obligated to follow along as well.

What is chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)?

Related conditions:
Acute lymphocytic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia

Definition:


Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a cancer of the white blood cells. A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell made in the bone marrow that helps fight infection. For unknown reasons, the bone marrow begins to make lymphocytes that develop abnormally, causing this fast-growing type of cancer. In this disease name, “chronic” means that the disease does not progress as rapidly as acute lymphocytic leukemia.

Risk factors: There are few risk factors for CLL. Past research has concluded that the risk of developing CLL is not affected by environmental factors. However, research is ongoing as to whether exposure to herbicides and insecticides increases the risk of CLL. About half the people who develop CLL have chromosomal abnormalities, such as deletions on a chromosome or an extra chromosome. People with close relatives who have CLL have a slightly increased risk of developing this disease. Risk increases with age; patients with CLL are rarely under the age of forty-five and are generally over the age of sixty. Men are more likely to develop CLL than women, and whites and those of Russian Jewish or Eastern European Jewish descent are more likely to develop it than those of other racial and ethnic backgrounds.

Etiology and the disease process: CLL starts in a single white blood cell (lymphocyte). These CLL cells begin to multiply and crowd out the normal white blood cells. The CLL cells accumulate in the bone marrow, but they do not stop normal blood cell production quite as much as some other types of leukemia. Slow-growing CLL may cause only minimal changes in the blood for years. Some patients begin to produce an antibody during the CLL disease process that works against their body’s own red blood cells and causes a severe type of anemia. In a small number of CLL patients, the disease changes and begins to act like a more aggressive type of lymphoma or leukemia. In a very small number of CLL patients, throughout the disease process, CLL begins to act like acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL).

Incidence: About 15,340 people in the United States were diagnosed with CLL in 2007. Most with CLL are more than fifty years old.

Symptoms: Symptoms of CLL usually develop slowly. Patients may find out they have this type of slow-growing cancer after getting blood tests for another condition. Symptoms may include anemia, bleeding easily, bone pain, bruising easily, fever, joint pain, loss of appetite, night sweats, pain or a feeling of fullness below the ribs, shortness of breath, swollen liver, swollen lymph nodes, swollen spleen, tiredness, unexplained or repeated infections, and weight loss.

Screening and diagnosis: There is no screening test for CLL. Blood and bone marrow tests are necessary to diagnose CLL. These tests look for abnormal lymphocyte cells. Bone marrow aspirate test or biopsy are two possible tests. The bone marrow aspirate test looks for abnormal cells in the bone marrow and can also be used for other types of analysis. A bone marrow biopsy can show how much disease is already in the bone marrow. The results of these tests help determine which type of drug therapy to use and how long treatment should last. Another test that may be performed, immunophenotyping, helps determine whether the increased lymphocytes in the blood are monoclonal (came from a single malignant cell). This can help distinguish CLL from other types of diseases that cause increased lymphocytes in the blood.

Depending on where the cancer started and the results of testing, CLL may be categorized into B-cell CLL (the most common type), T-cell CLL (which generally behaves more like other T-cell cancers than like CLL), or NK-cell CLL. B-cell CLL may be divided into further subtypes based on whether genetic mutations have occurred. As these mutations may affect how rapidly the disease progresses, this further division may help doctors determine treatment and which patients will benefit from earlier treatment. These subdivisions may also give a general idea of the progression and outcome of the disease, such as what effect the disease will have on marrow and blood cell development and what other organs, such as kidneys, bowels, or liver, may be affected. Researchers are investigating whether these subdivisions of CLL are actually different types of cancer.

Staging of CLL involves evaluating the number of CLL cells; whether the liver, lymph nodes, or spleen are enlarged; and whether the red blood cell or platelet counts are low. In the Rai system, used commonly in the United States, CLL is divided into five stages:

• Stage 0: Large numbers of lymphocytes in the blood but no other symptoms





• Stage I: Large numbers of lymphocytes in the blood and enlarged lymph nodes





• Stage II: Large numbers of lymphocytes in the blood, enlarged liver or spleen, possibly enlarged lymph nodes





• Stage III: Large numbers of lymphocytes in the blood, too few red blood cells (anemia), possibly enlarged lymph nodes, liver, or spleen





• Stage IV: Large numbers of lymphocytes in the blood, too few platelets, possibly too few red blood cells, and possibly enlarged lymph nodes, liver, or spleen

Treatment and therapy: Patients diagnosed with CLL may not need treatment immediately. They may have good health for several years without any treatment at all. However, doctors will want to closely follow patients with CLL to ensure that the CLL is not getting worse. This allows patients to avoid the side effects of treatment until treatment is necessary.

However, some patients will need treatment near the time of diagnosis because these patients have had the disease for some time and it is progressing or because they have a faster-growing type of CLL. Treatment may become necessary when the number of CLL cells rapidly becomes higher, the number of normal cells becomes lower, anemia becomes worse, the lymph nodes or spleen have enlarged, or symptoms have become bothersome to patients.

Treatment involves slowing the growth of CLL cells, keeping patients well enough to carry out daily activities, and protecting patients from infections, because the abnormal white cells are not able to fight infection. CLL is usually treated with chemotherapy or monoclonal antibody therapy. Both these therapies involve the use of certain drugs or drug combinations to kill abnormal lymphocytes.

A bone marrow or cord blood transplant may help some CLL patients. A transplant is a high-risk procedure, however, and probably will not be used unless a patient has a fast-growing type of CLL, is younger than fifty-five years of age, and has a close relative who is a good transplant match. Older patients or patients with slow-growing CLL are not good transplant candidates.

CLL is not usually treated with radiation therapy. However, radiation may be used if a large mass of lymphocytes is blocking an important part of the body, such as the kidneys, stomach, intestines, or throat. In a small number of CLL patients, surgery to remove the spleen (splenectomy) can help relieve pressure if the spleen is filled with too many CLL cells.

If patients with CLL have problems fighting infections, they may be treated with antibiotics. If infections become a chronic problem, patients may be treated with injections of a protein found in the blood that fights infections (immunoglobulin).

Follow-up treatment for CLL involves regular doctor visits and continuing lab tests to make sure the CLL cells are not beginning to increase rapidly. These doctor visits also help find any side effects from treatment. Patients who have had CLL are at increased risk for developing some other cancers, such as lung, colon, or skin cancer, and patients should be screened for these conditions during follow-up visits.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: There is no cure for CLL and no known way of preventing the disease. However, many patients, especially those with slow-growing forms of this disease, may live for many years in good health. Survival rates range from one year to more than twenty or thirty years depending on stage and form of disease. The five-year survival rate of CLL patients is greater than 70 percent.

Caligaris-Cappio, F., and R. Dalla-Favera, eds. Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia. New York: Springer, 2005. Print.

Estey, Elihu H., and Frederick R. Appelbaum. Leukemia and Related Disorders. New York: Springer, 2012. Print.

Faderl, Stefan H., and Hagop Kantarjian. Leukemias: Principles and Practice of Therapy. Chichester: Wiley, 2011. Print.

Faguet, G. B. Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: Molecular Genetics, Biology, Diagnosis, and Management. Totowa: Humana, 2003. Print.

Parker, James N., and Philip M. Parker, eds. The Official Patient’s Sourcebook on Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: A Revised and Updated Directory for the Internet Age. San Diego: Icon Health, 2002. Print.

Younes, Anas, and Bertrand Coiffer. Lymphoma: Diagnosis and Treatment. New York: Humana, 2013. Print.

In Julius Caesar, what does Brutus think of Caesar and Cassius?

Brutus respects Caesar, but he worries that he has too much ambition.  He thinks of Cassius as a friend, but doesn’t really respect him.

Brutus’s relationship with Caesar is a complex one.  He has known Caesar for most of his life and considers him a father figure.  However, he had a falling out with Caesar over his actions with Pompey and how he came to power in the civil war.  He is concerned that by naming himself dictator he has taken too much power for himself.

Brutus describes these feelings for Caesar in the soliloquy before the other conspirators arrive.  He explains why Caesar needs to die.  He begins by explaining that he doesn’t have a specific reason for disliking Caesar.

It must be by his death: and for my part,
I know no personal cause to spurn at him,
But for the general. He would be crown'd:
How that might change his nature, there's the question.
It is the bright day that brings forth the adder (Act 2, Scene 1)

Brutus tells the people in his speech after Caesar’s death that he loved Caesar, but had to kill him anyway.

If there be any in this assembly, any dear friend of
Caesar's, to him I say, that Brutus' love to Caesar
was no less than his. If then that friend demand
why Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my answer:
--Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved
Rome more. (Act 3, Scene 2)

Brutus feels that the people will understand that he did not kill Caesar just for power and not consider him a killer.  He wanted to be considered a tyrant slayer instead.  He really believed that he was doing the right thing in killing Caesar.

Although Brutus had respect for Caesar, he did not really respect Cassius.  He considered Cassius his friend, but never took his advice.  The only time he listened to Cassius was when Cassius convinced him to join the conspiracy.  After that, Brutus never took his advice.  Cassius suggested that Brutus kill Antony, and not allow Antony to speak, but Brutus did not listen.

Brutus told Cassius to think not of Antony when they are trying to decide who should die besides Caesar.

CASSIUS

Yet I fear him;
For in the ingrafted love he bears to Caesar--

BRUTUS

Alas, good Cassius, do not think of him:
If he love Caesar, all that he can do
Is to himself, take thought and die for Caesar … (Act 2, Scene 1)

This is essentially the same argument he makes when Antony asks to speak at Caesar’s funeral.  Cassius worries that he will influence the people, but Brutus does not listen.  Even after the two of them run their armies together, Brutus and Cassius argue constantly and Brutus doesn’t listen to Cassius.  Cassius doesn’t want to go to Philippi, and Brutus doesn’t listen.  It was a disaster fatal to both of them.

In Brave New World, how does Lenina's friend Fanny feel about Lenina's feelings for John?

Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel Brave New World develops the theme of culture clash or cultural conflict, a theme that is extremely apparent in the relationships between John, Lenina, and Fanny. 

Lenina and Fanny are both from the global, majority society in which Brave New World takes place. Their culture is built around luxury, simply pleasures, polyamory, sexual experimentation, and a severe aversion to complex emotions or commitments. On the other hand, John the Savage is from an indigenous reservation whose culture more closely resembles traditional cultures with which readers will be more familiar: an emphasis on family, monogamy, balancing good with bad, working hard, etc. 

Lenina begins to fall in love with John, and Fanny is appalled. Lenina's actions, though welcome to John, completely contradict everything that the two women have been raised to believe is right and good. 

How has warfare changed since World War I?

World War I is often described as the first fully modern war. This is true in many ways, and especially inasmuch as it involved the first systematic use of machinery like tanks and airplanes in warfare. Modern war has seen the expansion of these trends to an astonishing degree. The use of air power in particular has become crucial to modern war. That being said, modern war looks considerably different from warfare in the First World War, at least the Western Front. World War I still involved enormous masses of men, arrayed against each other in trenches. Modern warfare tends to be conducted with machinery like tanks and light vehicles along with light infantry, deployed in platoon or squad-sized units. Technology remains crucial in warfare, with "smart" bombs, GPS and laser-guided missiles, and especially drones placing much of the task of killing in the hands of remotely-based controllers. That said, war today, as in World War I, involves individual soldiers putting their lives on the line. It also involves massive destruction, especially for civilians. Increasingly, in fact, the nature of civil conflicts and the "war on terror" has blurred the line between soldiers representing nation-states and and partisan fighters as well as members of international terrorist groups. These terrorist groups have, as recent attacks have shown, brought warfare to "soft targets" like public transportation and civilian buildings in ways that would be familiar to Europeans in the early twentieth century.

In Elie Wiesel's Night, why don’t the Jews in Sighet listen to Moshe the Beadle's warnings about the Holocaust?

In Elie Wiesel’s memoir, Night, the Jewish residents of Sighet do not believe Moshe the Beadle when he tells them about his brush with death at the hands of German soldiers. Though Moshe is accurate in his depiction of the Holocaust, there are two reasons why other Jews brush off his warnings.

The first reason is that Moshe is known as an eccentric figure within Sighet’s Jewish community. He is also a foreigner, and outside of Elie, no one proclaims any sadness when Moshe is deported in 1942 with other foreign Jews. As most people have no deep affinity for Moshe, they are not very likely to listen to his ranting.

The second and most important reason that the Jews of Sighet do not believe Moshe is that, in their minds, there is no way that anything like Holocaust could ever happen. The Jews that Moshe tells his story to are well-educated men and women, but they believe that in the 20th century, with its electric lights, indoor plumbing, and other miracles, no person or group would attempt to eradicate a race of people.

What is bulimia?

Causes and Symptoms

Bulimia is typically regarded as a psychologically based disorder caused by childhood experiences, family influences, and social pressures, particularly on young women to be thinner than natural. Many people who develop bulimia have been overweight in the past and suffer from poor self-image and depression. Body weight is often within normal limits, but persons with bulimia perceive themselves as fat and are often obsessed with their body image. Others may have a history of sexual or physical abuse or of alcohol or drug abuse. Medical research suggests that bulimia may be partially caused by impaired secretion of cholecystokinin (CKK), a hormone that normally induces a feeling of fullness after a meal, or by depletion of the chemical serotonin in the brain, which contributes to a craving for carbohydrates.

Intense preoccupation with food and weight are invariably present, and eating binges are followed with self-induced vomiting or the ingestion of laxatives to rid the body of the consumed food. Depression and suicidal feelings sometimes accompany bulimia. The disorder can cause nutritional deficiencies, dehydration, hormonal changes, gastrointestinal problems, changes in metabolism and blood chemistry, heart disorders, persistent sore throat, and teeth and gum damage as a result of the acidic nature of regurgitated food.

Treatment and Therapy

Treatment of bulimia requires a combination of nutritional counseling, medication, and psychotherapy. Psychotherapists try to get to the root of any underlying psychological problems and resolve them. Various modes of group and cognitive behavioral therapy have proven effective.

Cognitive therapy usually includes confronting people with bulimia about their inaccurate perceptions of body weight and making contracts with them to shift their focus to nutrition rather than weight gain in exchange for rewards. Group therapy has helped many bulimics stop their binge eating, while treatment with antidepressant drugs, especially fluoxetine (Prozac), has helped many bulimic patients gain partial or full relief from their symptoms. Hospitalization is common treatment and is virtually always necessary if body weight is more than 30 percent below ideal.

Perspective and Prospects

Bulimia was classified as a distinct disorder by the American Psychiatric Association in 1980; the name was officially changed to bulimia nervosa in 1987. The disorder occurs mostly in adolescent and young adult females, with only about 10 percent of cases in males. Many cases of bulimia end after a few weeks or months but may reoccur. Other cases last for years without interruption.

In 2006, researchers developed a new test that analyzes carbon and nitrogen in hair, which is suggestive of eating disorders. This technique is beneficial because eating disorders are difficult to diagnose, in part because sufferers sometimes do not know that they have an eating disorder or do not want to be honest. By analyzing just five strands of hair, researchers were able to diagnose anorexia and bulimia accurately 80 percent of the time. This test may hasten treatment and prove an effective and objective method of monitoring recovery.

Bibliography:

Fairburn, Christopher G., and Kelley D. Brownell, eds. Eating Disorders and Obesity: A Comprehensive Handbook. 2d ed. New York: Guilford, 2005.

Maj, Mario, et al., eds. Eating Disorders. New York: Wiley, 2003.

National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders. ANAD, 2013.

National Eating Disorders Association. NEDA, n. d.

Parker, James M., and Philip M. Parker, eds. The 2002 Official Patient’s Sourcebook on Binge Eating Disorder. San Diego, Calif.: Icon Health, 2002.

Reindl, Shiela M. Sensing the Self: Women’s Recovery from Bulimia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 2001.

Swain, Pamela I., ed. Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa: New Research. New York: Nova Science, 2006.

Vorvick, Linda J. "Bulimia." MedlinePlus, Feb. 13, 2012.

Wood, Debra. "Bulimia Nervosa (Bulimia)." Health Library, Sept. 10, 2012.

What is a good quote from The Odyssey that shows a time when Athena uses her strength over her intelligence?

In The Odyssey, Athena, the daughter of Zeus and goddess of wisdom, often uses her divine powers to disguise her appearance and meddle in the affairs of the mortals.  Although she is regarded as the “goddess of wisdom,” there are instances in the epic that show Athena relying on her strength as an immortal as opposed to her intelligence.   When Athena enters Odysseus’ home, she takes on the persona of Mentes to tell Telemachus that his father is still alive.  However, she is met with disgruntled and drunk suitors, and her strength is manifested:

“[Athena] caught up a powerful spear, edged with sharp bronze, heavy, huge, thick, wherewith she beats down the battalions of fighting men, against whom she of the mighty father is angered, and descended in a flash of speed from the peaks of Olympia, and lighted in the land of Ithaca, at the doors of Odysseus at the threshold of the court, and in her hand was the bronze spear. She was disguised as a friend, leader of the Taphians, Mentes” (1.99-105).

This quote showcases Athena’s strength instead of her wisdom because she takes on the persona of a powerful male—a seemingly unnecessary step since she could easily remove the suitors from Odysseus’ home on her own abilities.  It seems as if she is more concerned with appearing powerful as opposed to accomplishing the task at hand which would end all of the fighting—announcing to Telemachus that his father has returned home to Ithaca. 

When Macduff and Lennox come for Duncan,what do they say about the night?

Macduff really says nothing about the night as he and Lennox arrive. But Lennox speaks at length to Macbeth about what was for him a very restless evening indeed. Duncan says that their chimneys were blown down by a storm, and that the air was full of "lamentings...strange screams of death and prophesying...of dire combustion and confused events." Lennox even describes reports that the "earth did shake," and that he never remembered a night like it. Macbeth, aware that Macduff is about to discover the bloody corpse of Duncan, can only comment that "'twas a rough night." Lennox's account is intended to voice the idea that Macbeth's murder of the rightful king of Scotland is not just an act of treachery. It is an act that violates the natural order itself. This is a running theme throughout Macbeth, as evil inverts what is "fair" and "foul," serves to "unsex" Lady Macbeth, and generally creates havoc in Scotland. By usurping the King's throne, Macbeth has overstepped his rightful place in the order of things. We begin to see the results of this in this scene.

What is cyclosporine? How does it interact with other drugs?

Grapefruit Juice

Effect: Possible Harmful Interaction

Grapefruit juice slows the body’s normal breakdown of several drugs, including cyclosporine, allowing it to build up to potentially excessive levels in the blood. A study indicates this effect can last for three days or more following the last glass of juice. If one takes cyclosporine, the safest approach is to avoid grapefruit juice altogether.

Citrus Aurantium

Effect: Possible Harmful Interaction

Like grapefruit juice, bitter orange (citrus
aurantium) may raise levels of cyclosporine. If one takes
cyclosporine, the safest approach is to avoid citrus aurantium altogether.

Berberine

Effect: Possible Harmful Interaction

The substance berberine, found in goldenseal, Oregon grape, and barberry, may increase levels of cyclosporine.

St. John’s Wort

Effect: Possible Harmful Interaction

The herb St.
John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) is
primarily used to treat mild to moderate depression.
St. John’s wort has the potential to accelerate the body’s normal breakdown of
certain drugs, including cyclosporine, resulting in lower blood levels of these
drugs.

This interaction appears to have occurred in two heart transplant patients taking cyclosporine, leading to heart transplant rejection. These persons had been doing well after transplantation while taking standard immunosuppressive therapy that included cyclosporine. After starting St. John’s wort for depression, however, they began experiencing problems and their blood levels of cyclosporine were found to have dipped below the therapeutic range. After St. John’s wort was discontinued, cyclosporine levels returned to normal and no further episodes of rejection occurred.

Numerous cases of transplant rejection episodes involving the heart, kidney, and liver have also been reported in people using the herb. Based on this evidence, if one is taking cyclosporine, one should not take St. John’s wort.

Ipriflavone

Effect: Possible Harmful Interaction

The supplement ipriflavone is used to treat osteoporosis.
A three-year, double-blind trial of almost five hundred women, as well as a small
study, found worrisome evidence that ipriflavone can reduce white blood cell count
in some people. For this reason, anyone taking medications that suppress the
immune system should avoid taking ipriflavone.

Peppermint

Effect: Possible Harmful Interaction

An animal study indicates that use of peppermint oil may increase cyclosporine levels in the body. If one is taking cyclosporine and wishes to use peppermint oil as well, notify a physician in advance, so that blood levels of cyclosporine can be monitored and the dose adjusted if necessary. If one is already taking both peppermint oil and cyclosporine and stops taking the peppermint, the body’s cyclosporine levels may fall. Again, consult a physician to make the necessary dosage adjustment.

Scutellaria baicalensis

Effect: Possible Harmful Interaction

The herb Scutellaria baicalensis (Chinese
skullcap) may impair absorption of cyclosporine, according to
a study in animals.

Bibliography

Alexandersen, P., et al. “Ipriflavone in the Treatment of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis.” Journal of the American Medical Association 285 (2001): 1482-1488.

Barone, G. W., et al. “Drug Interaction Between St. John’s Wort and Cyclosporine.” Annals of Pharmacotherapy 34 (2000): 1013-1016.

Breidenbach, T., et al. “Drug Interaction of St. John’s Wort with Cyclosporin.” The Lancet 355 (2000): 1912.

Ernst, E. “Second Thoughts About Safety of St. John’s Wort.” The Lancet 354 (1999): 2014-2016.

Malhotra, S., et al. “Seville Orange Juice-Felodipine Interaction: Comparison with Dilute Grapefruit Juice and Involvement of Furocoumarins.” Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 69 (2001): 14-23.

Ruschitzka, F., et al. “Acute Heart Transplant Rejection Due to Saint John’s Wort.” The Lancet 355 (2000): 548-549.

Takanaga, H., et al. “Relationship Between Time After Intake of Grapefruit Juice and the Effect on Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Nisoldipine in Healthy Subjects.” Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 67 (2000): 201-214.

Wu, X., et al. “Effects of Berberine on the Blood Concentration of Cyclosporin in Renal Transplanted Recipients: Clinical and Pharmacokinetic Study.” European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 8 (2005): 567-572.

What is amoxicillin? How does it interact with other drugs?

Bromelain

Effect: Possible Helpful Interaction

According to two studies, the supplement bromelain (from pineapple stems) may
increase the absorption of amoxicillin. This effect might help the
antibiotic work better.

Vitamin K

Effect: Possible Nutritional Depletion

There are concerns that antibiotic treatment might reduce levels of
vitamin
K in the body. However, this effect seems to be slight and
only significant in persons who are already considerably deficient in vitamin
K.

Bibliography

Cohen, H., et al. “The Development of Hypoprothrombinaemia Following Antibiotic Therapy in Malnourished Patients with Low Serum Vitamin K1 Levels.” British Journal of Haematology 68 (1988): 63-66.

Conly, J., and K. Stein. “Reduction of Vitamin K2 Concentrations in Human Liver Associated with the Use of Broad Spectrum Antimicrobials.” Clinical and Investigative Medicine 17 (1994): 531-539.

Goss, T. F., et al. “Prospective Evaluation of Risk Factors for Antibiotic-Associated Bleeding in Critically Ill Patients.” Pharmacotherapy 12 (1992): 283-291.

Shearer, M. J., et al. “Mechanism of Cephalosporin-Induced Hypoprothrombinemia: Relation to Cephalosporin Side Chain, Vitamin K Metabolism, and Vitamin K Status.” Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 28 (1988): 88-95.

In Whirligig by Paul Fleischman, how does Flaco get his name?

In the chapter Miami, Florida, Flaco relates to us his life story. Because of the civil unrest and violence in Puerto Rico, Flaco and his family had taken a plane to Miami when Flaco was eleven years old.

Flaco tells of the difficulties he encountered at school in Miami. Because he spoke no English, he was soon put in a school for 'retarded children.' Flaco had not enjoyed going to school and he remembers having numerous arguments with his father about the subject of schooling. Flaco's father had felt that going to school would allow Flaco to have a better life in America. However, Flaco had not agreed. At the age of fourteen, he had found work at a restaurant where he was soon given the name, Flaco, which means 'skinny' or 'thin.' Flaco remembers that, after he gave his father his first paycheck to help pay the family's rent, all pretense about schooling had gone out the window.

According to Flaco, he had enjoyed working at this first restaurant. The waitresses had all called him Flaco and had showered him with food; Flaco had felt that he was part of a community, and he continued working for the restaurant for four years until it closed.

What is theophylline? How does it interact with other drugs?

Vitamin B6

Effect: Supplementation Possibly Helpful

Theophylline appears to impair the normal conversion of vitamin B6
into the more active substance pyridoxal 5’-phosphate (PLP). These findings have led some researchers to suspect that some of the many side effects of theophylline could be caused, in part, by interference with B6 activity. Indeed, one study found that B6 supplements might help reduce theophylline-induced tremors.

St. John’s Wort

Effect: Possible Interference with Action of Drug

Evidence suggests that the herb St. John’s wort can lower blood levels of theophylline, making it less effective.

Cayenne

Effect: Possible Increased Risk of Toxicity

Oral cayenne might increase the absorption of theophylline, which could lead to an increased risk of theophylline toxicity.

Ipriflavone

Effect: Possible Increased Risk of Toxicity

Like cayenne, the supplement ipriflavone may increase levels of theophylline in the body, possibly increasing the risk of toxicity.

Bibliography

Bartel, P. R., et al. “Vitamin B6 Supplementation and Theophylline-Related Effects in Humans.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60 (1994): 93-99.

Jobst, K. A., et al. “Safety of St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum).” The Lancet 355 (2000): 575.

Nebel, A., R. K. Baker, and D. J. Kroll. “Potential Metabolic Interaction Between Theophylline and St. John’s Wort.” Annals of Pharmacotherapy 33, no. 4 (1999): 502.

Shimizu, T., et al. “Theophylline Attenuates Circulating Vitamin B6 Levels in Children with Asthma.” Pharmacology 49 (1994): 392-397.

`a_0 = -3, a_2 = -5, a_6 = -57` Find a quadratic model for the sequence with the indicated terms.

You need to remember what a quadratic model is, such that:

`a_n = f(n) = a*n^2 + b*n + c`

The problem provides the following information, such that:

`a_0 = -3 => f(0) = a*0^2 + b*0 + c =>  c = -3`

`a_2 = -5 => f(2) = a*2^2 + b*2 + c => 4a + 2b + c = -5`

`a_6 = -57 => f(6) = a*6^2 + b*6 + c => 36a + 6b + c = -57`

You need to replace -3 for c in equation `4a + 2b + c = -5` :

`4a + 2b - 3 = -5 => 4a + 2b = -2 => 2a + b = -1`

You need to replace -3 for c in equation `36a + 6b + c = -57` :

`36a + 6b - 3 = -57 => 36a + 6b = -54 => 6a + b = -9`

Subtract `2a + b = -1` from `6a + b = -9` , such that:

`6a + b - 2a - b= -9 + 1`

`4a = -8 => a = -2`

Replace -2 for a in equation `2a + b = -1` such that:

`2*(-2) + b = -1=>-4 + b = -1 => b = 3`

Hence, the quadratic model for the given sequence is `a_n = -2n^2 + 3n - 3.`

While Du Bois's "color line" has arguably been a social, economic, and political reality for the past several centuries, to what degree does it...

DuBois was interested in progress and progress has certainly been made since the publication of The Souls of Black Folk in 1903. Voting rights and equality of citizenship have been more fully and indiscriminately extended to ethnic groups of all stripes and opportunities for quality education, health care and employment have all risen for minority groups in the United States.

The notion of "double consciousness" that DuBois articulated seems to be less distressing today than in was a few decades ago as popular culture moves into modes of increasing diversity and better representations of the American diaspora, so to speak. (Although, the #Oscarsowhite Academy Awards issues of 2016 suggest that there is still progress to be made in this area too.) The idea of "being Black in public" is not as fraught or freighted as it was during the 1930s to the 1960s, as depicted in works like The Help and To Kill a Mockingbird. 

There has been progress, yet we continue to see discrepancies between ethnic groups that echo Dubois’ proclamation that the “duty and the deed” set before contemporary America is “the problem of the color line.”

U.S. Census Bureau data shows that Blacks, Native Americans and Hispanic or Latino Americans each show poverty rates at above 20%. Each of these groups shows a rate of poverty that is roughly double that of White Americans.

As this post is being written, an presidential election is underway and voting rights have come again into question as certain states have asserted state’s rights to govern their own voter restrictions in ways that are seen by some as, in effect, disenfranchising voters that will be disproportionately associated with particular (minority) ethnicities. This creates a scenario wherein American society is again debating the amount of progress that has been made and may still need to be made in regards to equality of rights (and access to government, civic institutions, etc.).

In light of numerous headlines in the last decade depicting law enforcement violence against Black males and females, conversations have also turned to question of equal protection under the law.

With a question being posed here as to the relevance of the “color line” notion as a problematic factor in social, economic and political American life, these examples seem to strongly suggest that this notion remains relevant.

The critic DuBois presents in The Souls of Black Folks is importantly subordinated to an articulation of goals and aspirations. He paints a picture of successful American life where the color line has been erased. It has not yet been erased, and so his work remains apropos of the contemporary moment. But the ideals expressed in his work are therefore also still relevant and compelling goals.

“Work, culture, liberty -- these we need, not singly but together, not successively but together, each growing and aiding each, and all striving toward that vaster ideal […] the ideal of human brotherhood” (7).

While the reality of the notion in question here has certainly shifted, we might say as a final work that the idea of ethnic difference and problems of race-oriented inequalities has not disappeared. 

What gives a country the right to rule/exist?

"Sovereignty" is the word for a country's right to independently rule its own citizens or land without any outside interference or obstruction. 

This is the core of the question. What gives a country (or, more accurately, a country's government) the right to sovereignty? 

There are at least two things. 

1. International recognition. Part of what gives a government the right to rule is recognition of that right by international organizations and other nations. Consider an example of this: 

The Principality of Sealand is a small micronation off the coast of England. (Check out this news article about a recent development in the nation.) It really only occupies a small island fortress. The "rulers" of this micronation have claimed sovereignty, but this claim has not been recognized by any governments. So the self-proclaimed country is not really a country at all. It has an unrecognized government and, thus, no real power or sovereignty. If the government of England wants to enter the island, they can and will. 

2. Social Contract. We've already discussed how international recognition is important in a country's sovereignty, but recognition of a government by its own citizens is important too. 

Most political theorists argue that a social contract exists between a government and its citizens. This is simply a description of the what a government will offer its citizens in return for their allegiance and loyalty. In the United States, we call this the Constitution. 

Most governments offer their citizens protection, basic services, and a right to be represented in said government. The citizens, in turn, offer the government the right to exist, to make laws, and to levy taxes, among other things. 

What is the history of the Roman Catholic Church as a denomination?

This is a huge question (some 2000 years of history), but I will attempt to provide a very brief outline of Catholic history. I stress that this should be considered a starting point to understanding the history of Catholicism, but hopefully this will serve as an appropriate framework for beginning this.

The Apostolic Age

The Chuch, like any other Christian denomination, traces its origins ultimately to Jesus and the community that developed around him. However, during the early centuries of Christianity, it can be problematic and anachronistic to try to find any denominational origins in the beliefs and practices of Christians (at least in terms of the major modern divisions of the religion – Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant). Eventually the type of Christianity that survived became the basis for much of Christianity today, including Catholicism.

The Seven Ecumenical Councils

Between 325 and 787, seven councils were held that helped determine the “official” version of Christianity. Today, both the Catholic and Orthodox churches hold these councils and their decisions to be valid, and to some extent Protestants share in this opinion. If you’re familiar with Christianity, you’ve probably heard of the Nicene Creed. This was (mostly) the product of the first council, the Council of Nicea, and was an attempt to summarize Christian belief in a single creed.

The Great Schism

In 1054, the Church as defined during the period of the ecumenical councils officially split into two separate entities, the East (Eastern Orthodox) and the West (Roman Catholic). Though Catholic doctrine and practices certainly precede this date, this can be seen as something of a starting point for the modern Catholic Church. There were many reasons for the schism, including geographical, political, and doctrinal – the split happened more or less along Roman (Catholic) and Byzantine (Orthodox) lines. The primacy of the Pope was a major point of contention for the Orthodox churches, and there was debate between the churches over the exact placement of the Holy Spirit in the Trinity (specifically whether the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father alone, as the Orthodox claimed, or from the Father and the Son, as the Catholics claimed).

The Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation

In the 1500s, the Catholic Church was struck another blow by a group of reformers who protested (hence the name “Protestant”) certain practices and beliefs held by the Church. These reformers, led by men such as Martin Luther (father of Lutheranism) and John Calvin (father of Calvinism), took issue with the Church’s selling of indulgences (purchased to help speed up a loved one’s time in Purgatory), as well as other issues of doctrine and church authority. Eventually Protestants came to reject church authority on a number of fronts, claiming that faith, grace, and scripture were sufficient for the believer, without the role of the Church as a necessary part of salvation. The Catholic Church would eventually hold a council (The Council of Trent) to affirm its positions and condemn Protestant beliefs (the Counter-Reformation).  

Vatican II/The Modern Roman Catholic Church

In the 1960s, the Catholic Church held the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II). Vatican II, very broadly speaking, was held to update and modernize the Church. It was during this time that the Church began to allow mass to be held in languages other than Latin. The Church affirmed the central role of scripture (still holding, if downplaying, the role of Church tradition as a valid source of revelation), and opened up a greater dialogue with other religions and with other Christian denominations. Most notably, the Church sough through Vatican II to become more open, transparent, and accessible than it had been throughout its history.